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Constitutional Developments During British Rule

The constitution of India was a result of the various Acts passed by the British parliament to regulate the affairs of the East India Company and later the British Indian Government.

Constitutional Developments – Regulating Act, 1773

The first important Parliamentary Act regarding the Company’s affairs was the Regulating Act of 1773. This Act made changes in the constitution of the Court of Directors of the Company and subjected their actions to the supervision of the British Government. In India, the Government of Bengal was to be carried on by a Governor-General and his Council, who were given the power to superintend and control the Bombay and Madras Presidencies in matters of war and peace. The Act also provided for the establishment of a Supreme. The court at Calcutta administers justice to Europeans, their employees, and the citizens of Calcutta. The Regulating Act soon broke down in practice. It did not give the British Government effective and decisive control over the Company. In India, it placed the Governor-General at the mercy of his council. Three of the Councillors could combine and outvote him on any matter. In practice, Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General under the Act, and three of his Councillors quarrelled incessantly, often creating deadlocks in the administration.

Constitutional Developments – Pitt’s India Act, 1784

The defects of the Regulating Act and the exigencies of British politics necessitated the passing of another important act known as Pitt’s India Act. This Act gave the British Government supreme control over the Company’s affairs and its administration in India. It established six Commissioners for the affairs of India, popularly known as the Board of Control. It was to guide and control the work of the Court of directors and the Government of India. The Act placed the Government of India in the hands of the Governor-General and a Council of three so that if the Governor-General could get the support of even one member, he could have his way. The Act clearly subordinated the Bombay and Madras Presidencies to Bengal in all questions of war, diplomacy, and revenues. With this Act, began a new phase of the British conquest of India. The Company saved its monopoly of the Indian and Chinese trade and its Directors retained the profitable right of appointing and dismissing its British officials in India. Most of the conquests in India were made after 1784.

While the Pitt’s India Act laid down the general framework in which the Government of India was to be carried on till 1857, later enactments brought about many important changes which diminished the powers and privileges of the Company. In 1786, the Governor-General was given the authority to overrule his Council in matters of importance affecting safety, peace, or the interests of the Empire in India, thereby increasing his power. Charter Act, 1813: By the Charter Act of 1813, the trade monopoly of the Company in India was ended and thrown open to all British subjects. But trade in tea and trade with China was still exclusive to the Company. The Government and the revenues of India continued to be in the hands of the Company.

Constitutional Developments – Charter Act, 1833

It brought the Company’s monopoly of tea trade and trade with China to an end. The Government of India continued to be run by the Company under the strict control of the Board of Control. As per the Charter, the Governor of Bengal was named Governor-General of India, For the first time, administrative offices were theoretically declared open to people of all races. But in practice, the Company still made all the appointments. At the same time, it was recognised that the day to day administration of India could not be run or even superintended from Britain, which was 6000 miles away.

Supreme authority in India was, therefore, delegated to the Governor-General and he, therefore, became the real, effective ruler of India, functioning under the superintendence, control and direction of the British Government. As per a rule established earlier, the Charters given by the British parliament were to be reviewed every 20 years. There was criticism of the 1833 Act by the legislators as being biased towards Bengal.

Sind was annexed in 1843 and Punjab in 1849 and these new territories had to be constitutionally provided for. There was also a demand for decentralization of powers and giving Indians a greater share in the administration of the country.

Constitutional Developments – Charter Act, 1853

The Act renewed the powers of the Company and allowed it to retain possession of Indian territories “in trust for Her Majesty, her heirs and successors until Parliament should otherwise provide”. The Act provided that the salaries of the members of the Board of Control, its Secretary and other officers would be fixed by the British Government but would be paid by the Company.

The Court of Directors was dispossessed of its power of patronage as services were thrown open to competitive examinations, in which no discrimination of any kind was to be made. A Committee with Lord Macaulay as its President was appointed in 1854 to enforce this scheme for the recruitment of civil servants. However, it should be noted that the Indians had virtually no say in the governance of their own country at any level.

Constitutional Developments – Government of India Act, 1858

The Revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British administration in India and made its reorganisation inevitable. The Indian society, Government and economy underwent significant changes in the decades following the Revolt. An Act of Parliament in 1858 transferred the power from the East India Company to the British Crown. While authority over India had previously been wielded by the Directors of the Company and the Board of Control, now this power was to be exercised by a Cabinet Minister called the Secretary of State for India aided by an India Council who was responsible to Parliament. Thus the ultimate power over India remained with Parliament. The Council of the Secretary of State was to advise the Secretary of State who could overrule its decisions.

Most of the members of the India Council were retired British Indian officials who have put in a certain number of years of service in India. Under the Act, the government was to be carried on as before by the Governor-General who was also given the title of Viceroy or Crown’s personal representative. With the passage of time, the Viceroy was increasingly reduced to a subordinate status in relation to the British Government in matters of policy as well as execution of policy.

Though India had been conquered by the East India Company for its own benefit, it had gradually come to be ruled in the interests of the dominating sections of British society. The India Act of 1858 further strengthened this tendency. But, in the past, a great deal of decision-making power was in practice left in the hands of the GovernorGeneral, because Britain was very far away. But by 1870, a submarine cable had been laid between England and India and so orders from London could now reach India in a matter of hours. No Indian had a voice in the India Council or the British Cabinet or Parliament. The Indian administration now became even more reactionary than it was before 1858 as all pretences of liberalism were given up. After the revolt, the British were of the opinion that the revolt of 1857 was due to the lack of contact between the rulers and the ruled and so there is a need for a forum to gauge Indian public opinion. So the Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861 for associating Indians in the legislative process in a small way.

Check out History of India notes in detail. 

The Scheme Of Dyarchy – British Indian System

To give effect to the principle of provincial autonomy, a system called Dyarchy was introduced. Under this system, the provincial subjects were divided into two parts – reserved subjects and transferred subjects. The former was to be administered by the Governor and the Executive Council, who was nominated by him and we’re not responsible to the Legislature while the latter was administered by the Governor acting with the ministers appointed by him from among the members of the provincial Legislature.

The right of the Governor and his council to intervene in transferred subjects were restricted but all the important subjects like police, land revenue, finance, Public Services etc. were all with the Governor. There was no collective responsibility but individual responsibility to the Governor. Dyarchy was introduced in provinces in April 1921 and continued to operate till April 1937, though it ceased to function in Bengal from 1924 to 1927 and in Central Provinces from 1924 to 1926. Elections were held in 1921 in various provinces with the restricted franchise, but boycotted by Congress.

The Justice Party, The Liberal party among others contested the elections and formed governments in various provinces. But the scheme of dyarchy was complicated and was full of defects. The division of administration into two halves was opposed to political theory and was done arbitrarily. There was no unity of purpose between them. They often overlapped and confusion prevailed in the administration. The ministers were severely hampered by the extraordinary powers of the Governor and his Council who cared little for the departments headed by the ministers. A minister also did not have control over his secretary and other ICS officers as all their service matters were with the Governor.

IMPORTANCE OF DYARCHY TO INDIA

It marked an important stage in the transition to the introduction of a full responsible Government in India. It enabled the greater representation of Indians in administration by reserving posts for them and by holding simultaneous examinations in India. It enabled the Indians for the first time to pass some very important legislation with regard to the expansion of local bodies, education and social reform.

More importantly, it knocked the bottom out of the myth seditiously built up by the British that Indians were not fit to stand on their own legs. The Indian leaders, for the first time, got some administrative experience in a constitutional setup which was both exciting and stimulating.

Government of India Act, 1935

This Act was the culmination of the initiatives taken by the British to make constitutional advances to India, especially the Simon Commission and the Round Table Conferences. After the Third Round Table Conference in London, a White Paper was issued in March 1933, which gave details of the working basis of the new constitution of India. In February 1935, a bill was introduced in the House of Commons by the Secretary of State for India which when passed became the Government of India Act, 1935.

The Act provided for the establishment of an All India Federation and responsible government for the provinces on the basis of provincial autonomy. The federation was to be based on a union of the provinces of British India and the princely States. There was to be a bicameral federal legislature in which the princely States were given proportionate representation.

Moreover, the representatives of these States were not to be elected, but appointed by the rulers. Only 14 per cent of the population in British India was given the right to vote. This legislature was also not given any significant power as defence and foreign affairs remained outside its control, while the Governor-General retained special control over the other subjects. The Governor-General and the Governors were to be appointed by the British Government and were to be responsible to it. The federal part of the Act never came into operation as the princely states refused to join the Union since it was voluntary. But the real reason was that they feared a huge congress victory in the elections which could endanger their interests. But more power was given to provincial governments.

The administration of provincial affairs was to be ordinarily carried on by a Council of Ministers appointed by the Governor from among the elected members of the provincial legislature and responsible to that body. The ministers held office during the Governor’s pleasure. The Governor did not only act merely on the advice of the Council of Ministers but had “special responsibilities” regarding certain specified subjects, in the discharge of which, he was authorized to act without consulting his ministers. Thus, the Governor under the Act had enormous powers (as much as 40% of the budget was nonvotable).

The Governor could also dismiss the ministers and could also by a proclamation, take the entire or partial government of the province into his own hands, if he was satisfied that the government of the province could not be carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Act. But the provincial ministers under the 1935 Act were certainly superior in power to the ministers under the 1919 Act. Firstly, there were no “Reserved” departments in the provinces. Secondly, the other ministers were to be appointed on the advice of the Chief Minister. Thirdly, the Governor had to encourage collective responsibility among the ministers. Fourthly, the ministers were elected to the Assemblies by a much wider franchise.

The separate electorates system of representation was a prominent feature of the Act of 1935. Under it, seats in the legislature were divided among various communities and groups. There were separate constituencies for General, Muslims, Europeans, Anglo-Indians etc., besides other communities and separate constituencies for Labour, Landholders, Commerce and Industry etc. This measure of the British Government accentuated the communal dissensions in the country, which ultimately paved the way for the partition of India in 1947.

Other Provisions of the Act of 1935 included the provision for a Federal Court, though the last word remained with the Privy Council in London; wherever the Governor-General or the governors acted in their discretion, they were made responsible to the Secretary of State; the India Council of the Secretary of State was abolished by the Act and was replaced by advisers whose advice need not be followed, except in respect to the Services. This was in response to the agitation by the Congress in this direction as the Council mostly followed anti-Indian policies.

The Government of India Bill received the Royal assent in August 1935. Provincial autonomy was introduced on April 1, 1937, and the electoral provisions began to operate on July 3, 1936. The operative part of the Act of 1935 remained in force till August 15, 1947, when it was amended by the Independence of India Act, 1947. The 1935 Act was perhaps the most important constitutional advance made to India. The extent of responsibility passed on to the Indians was the highest and the Indian ministers who included eminent leaders like Nehru, Rajagopalachari etc. gained immense administrative experience. Many of its provisions were included in our own constitution. It paved the way for the ultimate establishment of parliamentary democracy in India.

The Beginning Of European Settlements

India’s trade relations with Europe go back to the ancient days of the Greeks. During the Middle Ages, trade between Europe and India and South-East Asia was carried on along several routes. One was by sea along the Persian Gulf, and from there overland through Iran and Turkey, and then again by sea to Venice and Genoa. A second was via the Red Sea and then overland to Alexandria in Egypt and from there by sea to Venice and Genoa. A third, less frequented overland route lay through the passes of the North-West frontier of India, across Central Asia, and Russia to the Baltic. The Asian part of the trade was carried on mostly by Arab merchants and sailors, while the Mediterranean and European part was the virtual monopoly of the Italians. Trade remained highly profitable mainly due to the pressing demand for Eastern spices which fetched high prices in European markets. The Europeans needed spices because they lived on salted and peppered meat during the winter months, when there was little grass to feed the cattle, and only a liberal use of spices could make this meat palatable.

The old trading routes between the East and the West came under Turkish control after the Ottoman capture of Constantinople in 1453. Moreover, the merchants of Venice and Genoa monopolised the trade between Europe and Asia and refused to let the new nation-states of Western Europe, particularly Spain and Portugal, have any share in the trade through these old routes.

But the trade with India and Indonesia was too highly prized by the West Europeans to be so easily given up. The reputedly fabulous wealth of India was an additional attraction as there was an acute shortage of gold all over Europe, and gold was essential as a medium of exchange if the trade was to grow unhampered. The West European states and merchants therefore began to search for new and safer sea routes to India and Southeast Asia. They wanted to break the Arab and Venetian trade monopolies, to bypass Turkish hostility, and to open direct trade relations with the Fast They were well-equipped to do so as great advances in ship-building and the science of navigation had taken place during the 15th century. Moreover, the Renaissance had generated a great spirit of adventure among the people of Western Europe.

The first steps were taken by Portugal and Spain whose seamen, sponsored and controlled by their governments, began a great era of geographical discoveries. In 1494, Columbus of Spain set out to reach India and discovered America instead. In 1498, Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a new and all-sea route from Europe to India. He sailed around Africa via the Cape of Good Hope and reached Calicut. He returned with a cargo that sold for 60 times the cost of his voyage.

Portugal had a monopoly of the highly profitable Eastern trade for nearly a century. In India, she established her trading settlement as at Cochin, Goa, Diu, and Daman. From the beginning, the Portuguese combined the use of force with trade. In this they were helped by the superiority of their armed ships which enabled them to dominate the seas. Besides, they also took advantage of the mutual rivalries of the Indian princes to strengthen their position. They intervened in the conflict between the rulers of Calicut and Cochin to establish their trading centres and forts on the Malabar coast. From here they attacked and destroyed Arab shipping, brutally killing hundreds of Arab merchants and seamen.

Under the viceroyalty of Alfonso d’ Albuquerque, who captured Goa in 1510, the Portuguese established their domination over the entire Asian coast from Hormuz in the Persian Gulf to the Spice Islands in Indonesia. They seized Indian territories on the coast and waged constant war to expand their trade and dominions and safeguard their trade monopoly from their European rivals. The Portuguese were intolerant and fanatical in religious matters. They indulged in forcible conversion and their approach in this respect was particularly hateful to the people of India. They also indulged in inhuman cruelties and lawlessness. In spite of their barbaric behaviour, their possessions in India survived for a century because they enjoyed control over the high seas. But they clashed with the Mughal power in Bengal in 1631 and were driven out of their settlement at Hugli. Their hold over the Arabian sea had already been weakened by the English and their influence in Gujarat had become negligible by this time.

Portugal was incapable of maintaining for long, its trade monopoly or its dominions in the East. Its Court was autocratic and decadent; its merchants enjoyed much less power and prestige than its landed aristocrats; it lagged behind in the development of shipping; and it followed a policy of religious intolerance. The Portuguese and the Spanish had left the English and the Dutch far behind during the 15th century but, in the latter half of the 16th century, England and Holland, and later France, all growing commercial and naval powers, waged a fierce struggle against the Spanish monopoly of world trade. Portugal had become a Spanish dependency in 1580. In 1588 the English defeated the Spanish fleet called the Armada which shattered Spanish naval supremacy forever. This enabled the English and the Dutch merchants to use the Cape of Good Hope route to India and join in the race for empire in the East. In the end, the Dutch gained control over Indonesia and the British over India, Ceylon, and Malaya.

The Dutch had for long been dealing in Eastern produce which they bought in Portugal and sold all over Northern Europe. Their revolt against the Spanish domination of their homeland, the Netherlands, and Portugal’s merger with Spain made them look for alternative sources of spices. In 1595, four Dutch ships sailed to India via the Cape of Good Hope. In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was formed and the Dutch States General – the Dutch parliament – gave it a Charter empowering it to make war, conclude treaties, acquire territories and build fortresses. 

The main interest of the Dutch lay not in India but in the Indonesian islands of Java, Sumatra, and the Spice Islands where spices were produced. They turned out the Portuguese from the Indonesian Islands and, in 1623, foiled English attempts to establish themselves there. They did not, however, entirely abandon Indian trade. They established trading depots at Surat, Broach, Cambay, and Ahmedabad in Gujarat and Cochin in Kerala on the western coast, Nagapatnam in Madras, Masulipatnam in Andhra and Chinsura in Bengal on the eastern coast and also at Patna in Bihar and Agra in Uttar Pradesh. In 1658, they also conquered Ceylon from the Portuguese. They exported indigo, raw silk, cotton textiles, saltpetre, and opium from India.

The English merchants too looked greedily on the Asian trade. The success of the Portuguese, the rich cargoes of various products they carried, and the high profits they made, made the merchants of England impatient to participate in such profitable commerce. But, till the end of the 16th century, they were too weak to challenge the naval might of Portugal and Spain. Gradually, they gathered strength on the sea. In 1579, Drake sailed around the world. In 1588, the defeat of the Spanish Armada led to the opening of the sea passage to the East. An English company to trade with the East was formed in 1599 and it was granted a Royal Charter and the exclusive privilege to trade in the East by Queen Elizabeth on 31 December 1600. It was popularly known as the East India Company. From the beginning, it was linked with the monarchy: Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603) was one of the shareholders of the company.

The first voyage of the English East India Company was made in 1601 when its ships sailed to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. In 1608, it decided to open a factory (the name given to a trading depot) at Surat on the West coast of India and sent Captain Hawkins to Jahangir’s Court to obtain royal favours. Initially, Hawkins was received in a friendly manner and was given a mansab of 400 and a jagir. Later, he was expelled from Agra as a result of Portuguese intrigue. This convinced the English of the need to overcome Portuguese influence at the Mughal Court if they were to obtain any concessions from the Imperial Government. They defeated a Portuguese naval squadron at Swally near Surat in 1612 and then again in 1614. These victories led the Mughals to hope that they could use the English to counter the Portuguese on the sea. Consequently, the English Company was given a royal Farman to open factories at several places on the West coast.

To further their trading interests in India, their ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe reached the Mughal court in 1615. Roe succeeded in getting a royal Farman to trade and establish factories in all parts of the Mughal Empire. This resulted in a fierce naval battle between England and Portugal in 1620 which ended in an English victory. In 1662, the Portuguese gave the island of Bombay to King Charles II of England as dowry for marrying a Portuguese Princess. The Portuguese lost all their possessions in India except Goa, Diu and Daman. The English and the Marathas benefited, the latter capturing Salsette and Bassein in 1739.

The Dutch expelled the English from the trade of the Spice Islands and the latter was compelled to concentrate on India where the situation was more favourable to them. The intermittent war in India between the two powers, which had begun in 1654, ended in 1667 when the English gave up all claims to Indonesia while the Dutch agreed to leave alone the English settlements in India.

The English East Company had very humble beginnings in India. Surat was the centre of its trade till 1687. Throughout this period the English remained petitioners before the Mughal authorities. By 1623 they had established factories at Surat, Broach, Agra, and Masulipatam. From the very beginning, the English trading company tried to combine trade and diplomacy with war and control of the territory where their factories were situated. In 1625 the Company’s authorities at Surat made an attempt to fortify their factory but the chiefs of the factory were immediately imprisoned by the local authorities of the Mughal Empire which was still in its vigour.

Conditions in the South were more favourable to the English as they did not have to face a strong government there. The Vijayanagar Kingdom had been overthrown in 1565 and its place was taken by a number of petty and weak states. It was easy to appeal to them and get trading concessions. The English opened their first factory in the South at Masulipatam in 1611. But they soon shifted the centre of their activity to Madras, the lease of which was granted to them by the Nayaka of Chandragiri in 1639. The Raja authorised them to fortify the place, to administer it, and to coin money on condition of payment to him of half of the customs revenue of the port. Here the English built a small fort around their factory called Fort St. George.

The Island of Bombay was acquired by the East India Company from the King through a lease in 1668 and was immediately fortified. In Bombay, the English found a large and easily defended port. For that reason, and because English trade was threatened at the time by the rising Maratha power, Bombay soon superseded Surat as the headquarters of the Company on the West Coast.

In Eastern India, the English Company had opened its first factories in Orissa in 1633. In 1651 it was given permission to trade at Hoogli in Bengal. It soon opened factories at Patna, Dacca and other places in Bengal and Bihar. It now desired that in Bengal too it should have an independent settlement. Their success in trade and in establishing independent and fortified settlements at Madras and at Bombay, and the preoccupation of Aurangzeb with the anti-Maratha campaigns led the English to abandon the role of humble petitioners. They now dreamt of establishing political power in India which would enable them to compel the Mughals to allow them a free hand in trade.

Hostilities between the English and the Mughal Emperor broke out in 1686 after the formerly declared war on the Emperor. But the English had seriously miscalculated the situation and underestimated Mughal strength. The Mughal forces of Aurangazeb were even now more than a match for the petty forces of the East India Company. The war ended disastrously for them. They were driven out of their factories in Bengal and compelled to seek refuge elsewhere. Their factories at Surat, Masulipatam, and Vizagapatam were seized and their fort at Bombay besieged. Having discovered that they were not yet strong enough to fight the Mughal power, the English once again became humble petitioners and submitted. They expressed their willingness to trade under the protection of the Indian rulers.

The Mughal authorities readily pardoned the English folly as they had no means of knowing that these foreign traders would one day pose a serious threat to the country. Instead, they recognised that foreign trade carried on by the Company benefited Indian artisans and merchants and thereby enriched the State treasury. Aurangzeb, therefore, permitted them to resume trade on payment of Rs.150,000 as compensation. In 1691, the Company was granted exemption from the payment of customs duties in Bengal in return for Rs. 3,000 a year. In 1698, the Company acquired the zamindari of the three villages Sutanati, Kalikata, and Govindpur where it built Fort William around its factory. The villages soon grew into a city that came to be known as Calcutta. In 1717, the Company was secured from Emperor Harukhsiyar a Farman confirming the privileges granted in 1691 and extending them to Gujarat the Deccan. But during the first half of the 18th century, Bengal was ruled by strong Nawasireh as Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan. They exercised strict control over the English traders and prevented them from misusing their privileges. Nor did they allow them to strengthen the fortifications at Calcutta or to rule the city independently.

Even though the political ambitions of the Company were checked, its commercial affairs flourished as never before. Its imports from India into England increased three times in 30 years from 500, pounds to 1,795,000 pounds. British sentiments in Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta became the nuclei of Housing cities. Large nums Indian merchants and bankers were attracted to these cities. This was partly to the men commercial opportunities available in these cities and partly to the unsettled conditions and security outside them, caused by the break-up of the Mughal Empire.

Check out History of India notes in detail. 

The Mughal Empire

Rajput Policy

Akbar’s treatment of the Rajputs was not the outcome of thoughtless sentiment but was a result of a deliberate policy. based on the principles of enlightened self-interest, recognition of merit, justice and fair play. Akbar had realised at an early age that most of his Muslim nobles were not loyal while the Rajputs who were the masters of the large strategic region of Rajputana were renowned for their valour and fidelity, could be depended upon and converted as friends.

So he accepted the submission of Raja Bharamal Kachchhwaha of Amber who married his eldest daughter to Akbar. Raja Bhagawan Das (Raja Bharamal’s heir) and Man Singh (his nephew and adopted son) were subsequently given senior positions in the imperial hierarchy, One by one all the Rajput states submitted to Akbar and they were either given compensation or were absorbed into Mughal service.

But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy Mughal suzerainty despite several defeats, particularly the one in the battle of Haldighati (1576) in which Rana Pratap was severely defeated by the Mughal army under Man Singh. But Rana Pratap recaptured a large part of the area and Mewar was only annexed during Jahangir’s reign.

Check out History of India notes in detail. 

Religious Policy

Akbar was born and brought up in comparatively liberal surroundings. His Sunni, his mother a Persian Shia, and he were born in the house of a Hindu Akbar’s most notable tutor, Abdul Latif, who was liberal in his religious views taught him the principle of Suleh-i-Kul (universal peace) which Akbar never forgot. Thus the king and environment combined to influence Akbar’s religious views in the direction of moeras even before he was twenty, he abolished the pernicious practise of enslaving the prisoners of War and converting them to Islam. The pilgrim tax, a tax on Hindu pilgrims visiting their holy shrines, was abolished in 1563.

The next year a revolutionary measure was enacted which was the abolition of the hated Jeziya or poll tax on non-Muslims, which all previous Muslim rulers (even his father and grandfather) had thought it a religious duty to realise. Although his measure marked a fundamental departure in his religious policy, Akbar, nevertheless, in his personal life, continued for many years to be good, though tolerant Muslim who not only said his daily five prayers but also went through other observances of his religion. Every year, he devoutly performed the pilgrimage to the mausoleum of Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chishti at Ajmer.

Possessed of an impulsive bent of mind, he desired to understand the principles of his religion. With this object in view, in 1575, he erected a building at Fatehpur Sikri, called Ibadat Khana (House of Worship), in which regular religious discussions were held on Thursday evenings. In the beginning, the debates were confined to the Muslims but the Ulemas quarrelled among themselves on fundamental questions of Islamic theology and openly exhibited unworthy intolerance towards other’s views.

Their irresponsible behaviour and quarrels, their inability to their behaviour and quarrels, their inability to explain satisfactorily the fundamental doctrines of Islam, convinced Akbar that truth must be sought outside their bickerings of members of other faiths, such as Hindus, Jains, Zorastrai He threw open the debates of members of other faiths defeated by the Mughal army under Man Singh. But Rana Pratap recaptured a large part of the area and Mewar was only annexed during Jahangir’s reign. Religious Policy : 

Akbar was born and brought up in comparatively liberal surroundings. His Sunni, his mother a Persian Shia, and he were born in the house of a Hindu Akbar’s most notable tutor, Abdul Latif, who was liberal in his religious views taught him the principle of Suleh-i-Kul (universal peace) which Akbar never forgot. Thus ” ng and environment combined to influence Akbar’s religious views in the direction of moeras: Da before he was twenty, he abolished the pernicious practise of enslaving the prisoners of War and converting them to Islam. The pilgrim tax, a tax on Hindu pilgrims visiting their holy shrines, was abolished in 1563.

The next year a revolutionary measure was enacted which was the abolition of the hated Jeziya or poll tax on non-Muslims, which all previous Muslim rulers (even his father and grandfather) had thought it a religious duty to realise. Although his measure marked a fundamental departure in his religious policy, Akbar, nevertheless, in his personal life, continued for many years to be good, though tolerant Muslim who not only said his daily five prayers but also went through other observances of his religion. Every year, he devoutly performed the pilgrimage to the mausoleum of Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chishti at Ajmer.

Possessed of an impulsive bent of mind, he desired to understand the principles of his religion. With this object in view, in 1575, he erected a building at Fatehpur Sikri, called Ibadat Khana (House of Worship), in which regular religious discussions were held on Thursday evenings. In the beginning, the debates were confined to the Muslims but the Ulemas quarrelled among themselves on fundamental questions of Islamic theology and openly exhibited unworthy intolerance with other’s views. Their irresponsible behaviour and quarrels, their inability to their behaviour and quarrels, their inability to explain satisfactorily the fundamental doctrines of Islam, convinced Akbar that truth must be sought outside their bickerings of members of other faiths, such as Hindus, Jains, Zorastrai He threw open the debates of members of other faiths with Akbar, his main object was the fusion of Hinduism and Islam and the establishment of cultural as well as political unity in the empire. The innovation was the outcome of his policy of universal toleration and his commitment to national idealism. 

Prince Salim’s Rebellion

Prince Salim, the long-awaited heir to the Mughal throne, was born in 1569 to a Kachchwaha queen due to the blessings of Shaikh Salim Chisti, after whom the infant was named. When prince Salim rebelled in Allahabad in 1601, Akbar sent Abul Fazl to deal with the rebellion but Salim had him killed by the Bundela chief, Bir Singh, on his way to Agra. Akbar’s mother, Hamida Banu Begum, and his aunt, Gulbadan Begum, interceded for the prince and softened Akbar’s resentment. When Akbar died in 1605, Salim was put on the throne.

Jahangir (1605-27)

Prince Salim assumed the title of Jahangir (World Conqueror) on his coronation and declared his commitment to Akbar’s ideals of secularism. In 1611, Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa, the widow of Sher Afghan, who was killed fighting the governor of Bengal. After her marriage, Mehr-un-nisa was given the title Nur Mahal (Light of the Palace) and, later, Nur Jahan (Light of World). Nur Jahan’s father, Itimad-ud-daula was made wazir after his daughter’s marriage to the emperor. Nur Jahan’s elder brother, Mirza Abul Hasan, was given the title Asaf Khan and was appointed khan-i-saman. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later entitled Mumtaz Mahal), married Jahangir’s third son, Prince Khurram.

Jahangir’s greatest achievement was to secure the surrender of Maharana Pratap’s successor, Amar Singh in 1615. After Mewar, the Deccan was Jahangir’s main concern. But Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar pursued his guerrilla tactics with greater vigour and Mughal invasions were repeatedly beaten back. In 1606 Jahangir’s son, Khusrau, revolted but was defeated and imprisoned. One of Khusrau’s well-wishers, Guru Arjan Dev (5th guru of the Sikhs), was beheaded. Later Khusrau was blinded in order to disqualify him permanently from gaining the throne.

Khusrau died at Burhanpur in 1621 in the custody of Khurram. Their youngest brother, Shahryar, was incompetent, although his betrothal to Ladili Begum, Nur Jahan’s daughter made him the real contender to the throne.

When Iranians invaded Kandahar, Khurram was given the command to repel the Iranians, Khurram hesitated and Shahryar was commissioned to lead the campaign. Finding no way out, Khurram rebelled and marched towards Agra. Asaf Khan supported Khurram in the civil war (1622-24) but Khurram was unable to stand the harassment by the powerful general, Mahabat Khan and so ultimately surrendered and was pardoned. Jahangir’s health declined and in 1627, the emperor died at Bhimbar in Kashmir.

The emperor’s dead body was sent to Lahore for burial in the Dilkusha garden of Shahdara. Jahangir wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, in which he frankly talks about his vices and reflects his deep appreciation of nature, as well as his passion for painting.

Shah Jahan (1627-58)

Jahangir’s death made war for the throne imminent. Asaf Khan asked Khurram to come to Agra and played for time by proclaiming Khusrau’s son Dawar Baksh, king. Shahryar proclaimed himself king but Asaf Khan defeated and imprisoned him. Before Khurram reached Agra, Dawar Baksh and his brother Shahryar were beheaded. Khurram proclaimed himself emperor as Shah Jahan. The coldblooded murder of all possible contenders for the throne had removed any threat from the imperial family to Shah Jahan’s rule. Nur Jahan was pensioned off to Lahore where she stayed till her death.

Shah Jahan waged a war against the Bundela chiefs. Jujhar Singh, and his son, Vikramajit. defeated and eventually murdered them. But Shah Jahan’s imperial policies were more successful in the Deccan. Malik Ambar had died and Shah Jahan enticed some Maratha leaders into his service. The most eminent among them was Shahji Bhonsle, Shivaji’s father. In 1633. Shah Jahan arrived at Daulatabad and the Ahmadnagar kingdom was unable to resist the Mug onslaught and was annexed. Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with the Khandesh, Berar, Telengana and Daulatabad were made into four Mughal provinces.

When Iranians invaded Kandahar, Khurram was given the command to repel the Iranians, Khurram hesitated and Shahryar was commissioned to lead the campaign. Finding no way out, Khurram rebelled and marched towards Agra. Asaf Khan supported Khurram in the civil war (1622-24) but Khurram was unable to stand the harassment by the powerful general, Mahabat Khan and so ultimately surrendered and was pardoned. Jahangir’s health declined and in 1627, the emperor died at Bhimbar in Kashmir.

The emperor’s dead body was sent to Lahore for burial in the Dilkusha garden of Shahdara. Jahangir wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, in which he frankly talks about his vices and reflects his deep appreciation of nature, as well as his passion for painting. The first viceroy, Aurangazeb governed all four provinces twice (1636-1644 and 1652-1657). He made Khirki, founded by Malik Ambar, the capital of the Mughal Deccan and named it Aurangabad.

War of Succession

Shah Jahan’s sudden illness in 1657 plunged the empire into a civil war among his four sons – Dara Shikoh (crown-prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Though Shah Jahan had recovered by November 1657, the princes refused to believe the news and because they wanted to liberate Shah Jahan from Dara’s control. Aurangazeb rejected all Shah Jahan’s invitations to visit him and confined him within the ladies’ palace, and Aurangazeb refused to see his father until he had killed Dara, whom he declared an infidel. Aurangazeb treacherously murdered Murad and later Shuja after defeating him in the battle of Khajiva. Before he defeated Shuja, he had crowned himself emperor with the title Alamgir (conqueror of the universe). He defeated Dara at Samugarh forcing him flee to the north-west where he was betrayed by an Afghan chief and handed over to the Mughals. Dara was brought to Delhi, in 1659, humiliated and sentenced to death for stating in his Majma-ul-Bahrain that Islam and Hinduism were twin brothers. Shah Jahan died only in 1666, and was tended throughout his captivity by his daughter, Jahanara. His remains were buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.

Aurangazeb (1658-1707)

Within a year of his accession, Aurangazeb took steps to repair the ravage done by the prolonged war of succession which had also thrown the administration out of gear and caused misery throughout northern India. First of all, he established law and order by bringing the governors and other important officers under proper control. Next, he gave much needed relief to the people by abolishing many illegal taxes, and even the abwabs or miscellaneous taxes levied over and above the regular land revenue and customs duty.

As the champion of Sunni orthodoxy, Aurangazeb issued a number of ordinances to make the Muslims conform to the orthodox rules of conduct as taught by the Quran. He gave up the practice of inscribing the Kalima on the coins. Next, he discontinued the observance of Nauroz, as it was un-Islamic, and forbade the cultivation of bhang throughout the empire. He appointed censors of public morals (muhtasibs) in all important cities to enforce the Quranic law and to put down drinking, gambling and prostitution. The muhtasibs were also required to see that Muslims prayed five times every day and kept the fast of Ramzan. In 1669, a general order to demolish temples and Hindu centres of learning was issued. The celebrated Visvanatha temple of Benaras and the Kesava Rai temple of Mathura were demolished. In April 1679, he reimposed jeziya despite Hindu protests.

The first ten years of Aurangazeb’s rule were militarily and politically a great success. By 1661, Mir · Jumla seized Cooch-Behar and marched up the Brahmaputra, Next year he entered Garhgaon (near Gauhati), the Ahom capital. The Ahom army fled but their continued attacks, combined with pestilence and famine forced Mir Jumla to make peace with the Ahom Raja but died on his way to Dacca. Aurangazeb’s early success is overshadowed by his later setbacks. The excesses committed by the faujdar of Mathura, aroused the Jats around Mathura and Agra to rise in revolt under Gokla, who killed the faujdar.

The emperor himself marched to the area, captured and executed Gokla (1661). But the Jats found their leader in Churaman, who strengthened the Jat fort near Bharatpur and fearlessly sacked regions around Agra and Delhi. The next formidable rebellion was that of the Satnamis in the districts of Narnaul and Mewar. The Satnamis were a peaceful religious brotherhood who believed in the unity of God and were employed in agriculture. The rebellion was due to a private quarrel between a Satnami peasant and a Mughal foot soldier. The movement spread quickly and the Satnamis scored a number of victories over the imperial troops under local officers. Aurangazeb was compelled to send a large army under Radandaz Khan, who brutally defeated them and terrorised them into submission.

The ninth guru of the Sikhs, Tej Bahadur, offended Aurangzeb by his preachings and in 1675, he was beheaded on the orders of the qazi of Delhi. Guru Gobind, the tenth guru, reinterpreted the Sikh ideologies to justify military action. The Sikhs who accepted the rite of baptism which he devised were known as the Khalsa (pure) and were given the title of Singh (Lion).

A Mughal reinforcement besieged the Sikh stronghold of Anandpur and though the guru evacuated the fort, his two sons were savagely executed by Wazir Khan, the Sirhind faujdar. The Sikhs and the Mughals clashed repeatedly till Aurangazeb’s death. A serious challenge to Aurangazeb, however, came in 1678 when Maharaja Jaswant Singh died in the north-western tribal region. He had no heirs, but one of his pregnant queens gave birth to a posthumous son, Ajit Singh.

As the paramount power, Aurangazeb’ annexed the whole of Marwar. Indra Singh Rathor, a grand-nephew of Jaswant, was subsequently made Raja of Jodhpur. Though Ajit Singh was put under house arrest in Delhi, the Rathors under Durgadas rescued and took him to Marwar. Maharana Raj Singh of Mewar joined Jaswant’s chief queen, Rani Hadi, in pressing Ajit’s right to his father’s throne.

In 1679, the emperor ordered his fourth son, Akbar, to invade Marwar. But the prince instead declared himself emperor in 1681 with the support of the Rajputs. Aurangazeb, soon marched against him and managed to alienate the Rajputs from Akbar by using deceitful means. The Rajputs deserted Akbar and so Akbar fled to the court of Sivaji’s son Sambhaji. Aurangazeb left for the Deccan in September 1681 (this marks the second part of his reign, which was a disaster), never to return to the north. In the Deccan, Shivaji carved out an independent Maratha state in the territories north and south of Konkan. To contain the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur. It was annexed in 1686 and the Adil Shah dynasty came to an end. Bijapur was made the seat of the Mughal provincial governor.

Next, Aurangazeb turned his attention towards the kingdom of Golkonda where Abul Hasan, the last Qutb Shahi ruler, had placed the administration in the hands of two Brahman ministers Akkanna and Madanna and spent most of his time in pleasure-seeking. The Hindu influence at Golkonda and the latter’s alliance with the Marathas were particularly offensive to Aurangazeb.

In July 1687, Aurangazeb sent Shah Alam to capture Hyderabad; but the prince failed. But in October, the commander-in-chief of the Golkonda army was bribed by the Mughals and he deserted his master to join Aurangazeb. The sultan fled and Hyderabad was occupied by Shah Alam. The Muslim nobles and the two dowager queens of Golkonda had Madanna and Akkanna murdered. This was followed by a general attack on the Hindu population of Golkonda.

MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

THE CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

The Mughal emperors brought about certain fundamental changes in the administrative structure in India. Babur, the founder of the Mughal emperor assumed the title of Padshah (emperor) which was continued by his successors. It meant that the Mughal emperors did not accept the Khalifa even as their nominal overlord. Akbar further enhanced the power and prestige of the emperor by declaring himself the arbiter in case of differences of opinions regarding Islamic laws.

The Mughal rule was also not theocratic. Except for Aurangazeb, no other Mughal emperor attempted to carry his administration on principles of Islam. The emperors accepted two primary duties for themselves – Jahanbani (protection of the state) and Jahangiri (extension of the empire). Besides, they tried to create those conditions which were .conducive to the economic and cultural progress of their subjects. Another novelty of the Mughals was that they began the policy of religious toleration.

Only Aurangazeb reversed the policy of Akbar. All these new innovations in polity made the Mughal administration different from the administration of the Sultans of Delhi in many respects. Akbar raised the structure of the Mughal administration. It persisted till the reign of Aurangazeb with minor changes. The weak successors of Aurangazeb, however, could not maintain it and the result was virtual anarchy.

The King

The Emperor was the head of the state. He was the lawmaker, the chief executive, the commander-in-chief of the army and the final dispenser of justice. His ministers and nobles could advise him but he was the final arbiter in everything. From the time of Akbar, the emperor was regarded as God’s representative on earth.

That is why Akbar started practices like Jharokha Darshan (a predominantly Hindu practice where the king appeared on the balcony in full regalia for the view of the public) and Tula Dan (weighing of the emperor on his birthdays in gold and silver and then distributing them as alms to the poor). Thus, the theory of kingship of the Mughals was near to the Hindu theory of kingship.

By concentrating all powers in their hands and believing that the king was the representative of God on earth, the Mughal emperors were perfect despots. But, they were enlightened, benevolent despots who believed that the foremost duty of a king was to look after the welfare of his subjects. Every Mughal emperor, including Aurangzeb, worked very hard to attain this object.

The Prime Minister (Vakil-i-mutlaq; Diwan)

Akbar gave this post to Bairam Khan whereby, he was the protector of the state and was above all other ministers with the right of even appointing and dismissing them. But no other man was given these powers after the fall of Bairam Khan. The Prime Minister’s functions were over to the Diwan or the Finance Minister who was made equivalent to the Prime Minister.

Primarily, the Diwan looked after the income and expenditure of the state. Besides, he looked after the administration in absence of the emperor from the capital and commanded the army on occasions. The prime minister supervised the working of other departments, collected news from provinces, dispatched orders of the emperor to governors and looked after the correspondence of the state.

The Mir Bakhshi

He was in charge of the military department. In no way, he was the commander-in-chief of the army. He managed the recruitment of the soldiers, maintained their huliya, looked after the branding of the horses and the elephants, looked after all sorts of supplies to the army and training of the soldiers. He also deputed Mansabdars for the security of the palace and changed them every day. He was also the head of the nobility and was the head of all Mansabdar affairs.

Sadr-us-Sadur (Chief Sadar)

He advised the emperor on religious matters. He looked after charity, religious education, distribution of jagirs to scholars and observance of the laws of Islam by the Muslims. Sometimes the posts of Sadr-us-Sadur and chief Qazi were combined.

The Chief Qazi

Though the emperor was the highest judicial authority in the state, yet, he was assisted by chief Qazi at the capital. While the muftis interpreted Islamic laws, the chief Qazi declared the judgement. He also appointed Qazis in provinces, districts, etc.

The Muhtasib

He looked after the moral development of the subjects, particularly it was his job to see that the Muslims observed Muslim laws. He also checked drinking of liquor, gambling and illegal relations between men and women. He also kept control over weights and measures and observed that articles were sold in the market at proper prices. During the reign of Aurangazeb, he was assigned the responsibility of destroying the schools and temples of the Hindus.

Khan-i-Saman

He was not a minister during the reign of Akbar but was ranked as one of the ministers after him. He looked after the personal necessities of the emperor and his family and also that of the palace. One of his important duties was to manage the royal Karkhanas or workshops which manufactured articles necessary for the royal household.

Mir-i-Atish or Daroga-i-Topkhana

He was incharge of the artillery of the emperor. It was an important office and was mostly assigned to a Turk or a Persian.

Daroga-i-Dak-chauki

He was the head of the spy department of the state. He collected news from various Vaqia-i-navises and Khufia-navises who were appointed by him in provinces and elsewhere. He had to keep the emperor informed about every important affair within the empire.

THE PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

The empire was divided into several provinces. There were fifteen provinces during the reign of Akbar but the number increased to twenty during the reign of Aurangazeb. The head of the provincial administration was called Nazim or Sipahsalar. The provincial administration was the duplicate copy of the centre. Akbar had given wide powers to his Diwan and all provincial Diwans. were kept under the supervision of the Diwan at the centre. Akbar kept a balance of power between the Subedar and the Diwan by clearly defining their duties so that none of them had the power to revolt.

Subedar

He was the head of the provincial administration and had maintained peace within his province. He suppressed the revolts, decided criminal cases, constructed roads, bridges and other public utility works and exacted tribute from feudatory chiefs whose territories were within his province.

O Diwan

Diwan was the financial officer of the province. He was appointed by the emperor on the advice of the Diwan (wazir) at the centre. He was next to the Subedar in rank and respect within the province but was not subordinated to the Subedar as he was directly under the Wazir at the centre. He collected revenue and other taxes. He looked after agriculture, supervised the income and expenditure of the province, informed the central government regarding the economic condition of the province and decided civil cases.

The Bakhshi

His primary responsibility was to look after the military organisation of the province. He managed the recruitment, discipline, training and supplies for the provincial army.

Waqaya Navis

He was the head of the spy-department of the province. He sent reports of all affairs and also functioning of all officers including that of the Subedar and the Diwan to the central government.

Kotwal

In every provincial capital and every city, there was a Kotwal who maintained peace and looked after the cleanliness, public services, visitors, etc., in the city. He was a military officer and maintained sufficient soldiers with him.

The Sadr and the Qazi

In provinces, mostly these two offices were given to the same person. He was subordinated to the chief Sadr and the chief Qazi at the centre. As the Sadr, he supervised that the Muslims practised Islamic laws and the subjects, in general, observed morality and as the Oazi he dispensed justice, solemnised marriages and led the Friday prayers.

THE SARKAR (DISTRICT)

Every province or Subah was divided into a number of districts called Sarkars for the convenience of administration.

The Faujdar

The Faujdar was the military officer of the district. His primary duty was to maintain peace in the district, provide security to the subjects and enforce the laws of the state. He was appointed by the emperor directly though he was subordinated to the Subedar.

The Amal Guzar

He was the finance officer of the district and was subordinated to the provincial Diwan. He collected the revenue and other taxes, protected agriculture and punished the guilty ones. He was in charge of the district treasury as well.

 The Bitikchi

He worked under the Amal Guzar, He prepared all papers concerning the lands of the peasants and was the custodian of all records. He also gave the receipt of payment of the revenue to the cultivators.

Khazandar

He worked under the Amal Guzar and was the treasurer of the district.

THE PARAGANA

Every district (Sarkar) was divided into several paraganas.

• The Shiqdar

He was a military officer and head of the administration of the Paragana. He maintained peace and order and helped in the collection of the revenue.

• The Amil

He was the finance officer of the Paragana. His primary duty was to collect the revenue and, therefore, he was in direct contact with the cultivators. 

• The Fotedar

He was the treasurer of the paragana.

• The Qanungo

He was the head of village patwaris. He prepared all papers concerning agriculture and the collection of revenue. Karkuns were the clerks who helped different officers in preparing records and all papers concerning administration. 

• The Village

The Mughals did not take the responsibility of administering villages. Therefore, the .. administration of villages was left in the hands of local village Panchayats. 

THE MANSABDARI SYSTEM

During the early years of his reign, Akbar’s army was mostly foreign personnel consisting of Mongols, Turks, Uzbegs, Persians and Afghans who had followed Babur and Humayun as their regular troops or camp-followers. The commanding officers were of the same race as the troops and were granted large assignments of land in lieu of their salaries. In view of the semi-independent position of the commanders, the military aristocracy was inclined to be insubordinate, making the Mughal army a weak instrument of force.

The officers resorted to irregularities and fraudulent practices and cheated the government and soldiers alike. Akbar concluded that there was no other way of establishing his authority except by taking the absolute power of direction and control in his own hands and reorganising the army in such a manner as to stamp out corruption and convert it into a powerful disciplined force. The result was the mansabdari system. The word mansab means place or rank and mansabdars were, therefore, holders of ran} the imperial service. The lowest rank was that of ten and the highest that of ten thousand.

Towards the end of his reign, Akbar raised the highest rank to twelve thousand. The mansabs were a convenient method of fixing the status and salaries of the imperial officers. The services were not classified into civil service and military service, and any mansabdar was liable to be called upon to discharge either duty at any time in his career.

All imperial officers, except perhaps the qazis and the sadrs, were enrolled as members of the mansabdari system and were required to maintain some troops proportionate to their ranks. There were no fixed rules of appointment, promotion or dismissal of the mansabdars who held offices at the emperor’s pleasure and were promoted, degraded or dismissed at his will.

The mansabdars were paid high salaries in cash, and sometimes by assignments of land expected to yield the revenue corresponding to the salaries fixed for particular mansab. Mansabdars were allowed to recruit their own troops, who generally belonged to their own race or tribe. The mansabdars were required to purchase their own horses and equipment; sometimes these were supplied by the government. At the time of enlistment and first muster the descriptive rolls of the troops and of horses under a mansabdar were recorded and the horses branded.

Akbar paid a great deal of attention to his military establishment and laid down minute rules and regulations regarding its organisation, equipment and discipline. Care was taken to see that the regulations were faithfully observed and the discipline of the army was not impaired. He unerringly laid his finger on the weak points in his military department and removed its deficiencies without loss of time.

He succeeded in making the system work so efficiently, that he earned the credit of having a lifetime’s unbroken record of victories in the battlefield. The system was, however, inherently weak. Firstly, during the first half of Akbar’s reign mansabdars cheated the government by bringing to muster, men from the streets in military uniform and passing them off as soldiers and maintained inferior horses.

Individual troops under the system were more loyal to their chiefs than to the emperor as the division of the army was mansabdarwise and a mansabdar commanded the same troops throughout his life. Secondly, within a mansabdar’s division there was no classification of troops into regiments. All the troops were immediately under him and every soldier had personal relations with him.

Thirdly, corruption in some form or other was unavoidable in a system that left the duties of recruitment and administration of the army to the mansabdars. Fourthly, the practice of payment through the mansabdars was pernicious and led to abuses. Fifthly, the mansabdari system had no organic centre and lacked the cohesive force which is essential in a national army.

Sixthly, the standard of efficiency varied from unit to unit under various mansabdars and there was no uniformity of weapon, equipment, or discipline. On account of these inherent weaknesses, the Mughal army considerably deteriorated under Akbar’s successors. In spite of so many defects, the mansabdari system was an improvement upon the military organisation of the medieval period. It was designed to tap every source of fighting talent in the country.

Some units were particularly suited to certain special kinds of military duties. For example, certain Rajput mansabdars were diplomatically used against certain other Rajput chiefs with whom they conflicted. The system assured steady loyalty of the mansabdars to the emperor and offered an incentive for individual distinction. Every mansabdar was aware that his promotion or degradation depended upon his loyalty and quality of service.

JAGIR SYSTEM

Jagir was a unit of land, whose revenues were assigned to a mansabdar in lieu of his salary. Under the Mughals, apart from the jagir lands, whose revenues went to pay the salaries of the mansabdars for their services to the state, there were also the khalisa lands, whose revenues were earmarked for the maintenance of the imperial court and the personal expenditure of the emperor. Hence the jagir of the Mughal times was similar to the iqta of the Delhi sultanate.

Like the iqta, the assignment of a jagir to a mansabdar did not confer any hereditary rights to that jagir on the mansabdar. He could enjoy the revenues of the jagir only as long as he held the mansab or official rank and rendered services to the state. In other words, the jagirdars owed their position to the Mughal emperor. The Mughal emperors guarded their privileged position against any hereditary claims to the jagirs by the jagirdars by following the policy of frequent transfer of jagirs.

The jagir system was closely related to the mansab system. We should note here that all jagirdars were mansabdars, but not all mansabdars were jagirdars, because some mansabdars were paid in cash and not through the assignment of jagirs… 

Land Revenue Administration

Up to Akbar’s 8th regnal year, Sher Shah’s system continued to be the basis with some modifications to meet the growing need for granting jagirs. A series of experiments were made till Akbar’s 24th regnal year, after which the land revenue administration was stabilised. It can be examined under several heads.

Land ownership

Proprietorship (i.e., hereditary rights only) of peasants on soil was recognised. 

Methods of calculation

Central government usually fixed rates annually according to the yield which fluctuated. Akbar, however, wanted a uniform system of assessment through which he could make an accurate estimate of crops so that there would be minimal chances of oppression by officers and less fraud by the cultivators. 

ZABTI OR BANDOBAST SYSTEM

Raja Todar Mal, the Diwan found the old jama (assessment) figures unreliable and hence collected correct figures from the qanungos and in the 15th regnal year the new jama came into force. Khalisa land was divided into circles, each yielding revenue of one karor (crore). That is why it is known as the karori experiment.

Each circle was placed under a revenue official called Karori. The aim was to make as extensive a measurement as possible, then use it as a basis for compiling a new general assessment. Instead of a rope, a jarib made of bamboo sticks joined by iron rings, came to be used for measuring land.

Measurement was not possible in all subahs of the empire. That is why in some subahs the old systems continued. Thus, wherever possible measurement was undertaken and sufficient information was acquired. All these measures were part of a new system of revenue calculation, called the zabti system. 

 DAHSALA SYSTEM

On the basis of the above zabti system, fresh reforms were undertaken by Todar Mal. These reforms were collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala. Under this system land was classified into four categories, viz., polaj – annually cultivated, parauti – left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years), chachar – left fallow for 3 to 4 years, and banjar – uncultivated for 5 years or more.

Todar Mal introduced a uniform unit of measurement, Ilahi gaz, which had 41 digits. Further, a decennial survey of every paragana was conducted to ascertain the category of cultivation and level of prices. The aim was to introduce a permanent jama (dastur ulamal) and remove difficulties and delays associated with yearly sanctions. So in 1580, final dasturs giving cash rates per bigha were prepared for different localities.

Mode of Payment

The payment was made generally in cash, though there were some exceptions. For example, in Kashmir and Orissa, it was in kind. 

Machinery for Collection

There was a patwari at the village level. He kept a bahi, i.e., a register containing information about cultivators, their lands and assessed revenue. It was the most important document and served as evidence in settling disputes. There were the qanungos at the paragana level who maintained records. At the sarkar level, amil or amalguzar was assisted by karkuns and khazanadar. All these officials worked under the supervision of the provincial diwan, who was directly under the diwan at the centre.

Measurement was not possible in all subahs of the empire. That is why in some subahs the old systems continued. Thus, wherever possible measurement was undertaken and sufficient information was acquired. All these measures were part of a new system of revenue calculation, called the zabti system.

Dahsala System

On the basis of the above zabti system, fresh reforms were undertaken by Todar Mal. These reforms were collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala.  Under this system land was classified into four categories, viz., polaj – annually cultivated, parauti – left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years), chachar – left fallow for 3 to 4 years, and banjar – uncultivated for 5 years or more.

Todar Mal introduced a uniform unit of measurement, Ilahi gaz, which had 41 digits. Further, a decennial survey of every paragana was conducted to ascertain the category of cultivation and level of prices. The aim was to introduce a permanent jama (dastur ulamal) and remove difficulties and delays associated with yearly sanctions. So in 1580, final dasturs giving cash rates per bigha were prepared for different localities.

MUGHAL COURT CULTURE

Architecture

• The main features were
• Combination of the Persian elements of grandeur and grace and decoration of Indian or Hindu.
• Architecture. 
• Uniformity in the architectural character and structural principles all over the empire.
• Construction of mausoleums in the centre of large park-like enclosures and on high platforms. Construction of a double dome – the outer and the inner one.

Development Of Mughal Culture

Fort-building

The first to undertake construction on a largescale was Akbar, who constructed a series of forts, the most important being the Agra fort, built-in red sandstone. His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad. The reign of Shah Jahan saw the climax of fort-building as seen in the Red Fort at Delhi, which had within it Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas. –

 Palace-building

During Akbar’s reign, a palace-cum-fort was built at Fatehpur Sikri. Here many of the buildings were in the style of Gujarat and Bengal. The most magnificent building in it is the mosque (Jami Masjid) and its gateway (Buland Darwaza) which stands 176 feet in height. 

Other important buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are

Jodha Bai’s palace (influence of Hindu style), palaces of Mariam and Sultana, Birbal’s house, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas, and Panch Mahal. 

Building of Mausoleums

During Akbar’s reign, Humayun,s tomb at Delhi was the first Mughal tomb to be placed in the centre of a large park-like enclosure and it also marked the beginning of the use of white marble by the Mughals. The tomb of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri was also built during Akbar’s reign. Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra near Agra was another good example.

The tomb of Itimad-ud-daula at Agra, built by Nur Jahan for her father, was constructed wholly of white marble with pietra-dura. It marks the beginning of the practice of putting up buildings entirely of marble, and a new method of decoration, viz., pietradura (decoration of walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones).

During Shah Jahan’s reign, large-scale use was made of pietra-dura in his buildings, especially in the magnificent Taj Mahal which was built at the cost of Rs.50 lakhs at that time, supposedly by Ustad Isa.

Building of Masjids

During Babur’s reign four mosques, one each at Sambhal, Panipat (in Kabul Bagh), Agra (old fort) and Ayodhya was built. Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri built during Akbar’s reign is one of the most magnificent buildings. Shah Jahan’s reign saw the climax as seen in Moti Masjid at Agra (built entirely in white marble) and Jama Masjid at Delhi (built-in red sand stone). Their influence in provincial and regional kingdoms is clearly visible. Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

PAINTINGS DURING MUGHALS

Features

• The Mughal pictures were small in size and hence are known as miniature paintings. 
• It was mostly courtly and aristocratic. 
• A keen appreciation of nature was another characteristic of the Mughal school.
• Remarkable excellence was achieved by the Mughal school in portrait painting.
• The excellence of the Mughal artists in colour composition,

Development of Mughal Paintings

Humayun

During his stay at the court of the Persian ruler, at Tabriz he met two young painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-al-Samad (or Abdus Samad), to whom he gave hope of future employment in case he regained his kingdom. Later on, the two joined him in Kabul and Abdus Samad gave drawing lessons to little Akbar. Akbar: Though illiterate, Akbar had a great thirst for knowledge and commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts. He called a great number of artists to his court and became the real founder of the Mughal school of painting. Akbar gave employment to many artists.

A hundred and fifty or so are known since the illustrations in the manuscripts produced during Akbar’s reign bear the names of the artists. The chief painters were Mir Sayyid Ali, Abd-al-Samad (already in the service of Humayun) and Baswan, a Hindu. Akbar is supposed to have maintained a studio exclusively for painting. Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-al-Samad drilled the craftsmen in all the technical details of Persian miniatures. Many Indians such as Baswan and Daswant attained great positions as court artists.

In 1580, Akbar received in his court the first group of Jesuit priests who presented him with a copy of the Polyglot Bible illustrated with Flemish engravings. The emperor ordered his painters to copy them. Soon other European paintings were brought to his court and studied with interest. After 1595, Mughal paintings reveal the assimilation of Western techniques.

Akbar’s liberal patronage to the Hindus and Muslims gradually resulted in an excellent blending of the Persian and local styles, which was at its best under Jahangir. Jahangir himself was a connoisseur of art and under his lavish patronage, the painting reached its zenith. The paintings of his reign were far more mature works of art. The eminent painters included Abul Hasan (Nadr-uzZaman) Aga Raza, Mansur (Nadr-ul-Asar), Muhammad Nadir, Bishan Das, Manohar and Govardhan.

During this period, European influence manifested itself more and more. The custom of copying European paintings and engravings continued. Jahangir preferred group portraits as well as court scenes and different episodes of his life. An excellent example is the ‘Emperor Jahangir celebrating the festival of Gulab-Pashi’, a Persian festival.

A new type of painting, born of the emperor’s great love of nature, produced the most delightful pictures of his time, namely the animal and flower paintings. His painters used to accompany him on his outings and often the emperor asked them to paint the lovely blossoms, plants, birds and animals he noticed. They form the illustrations in the emperor’s memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, which record many episodes from his daily life. In the field of portraiture, Jahangir’s reign achieved perfection, depicting the full-length subjects, either in profile or three-quarter view. 

Shah Jahan

Though interested mainly in architecture, he continued to patronise painting. The high quality of craftsmanship continued, but the inner vitality started to disappear. Kalyan Das, Anup Chitr and Raj Anup were prominent painters in his court. But a more vigorous patron was Shahjahan’s šon Dara Shikoh who had an album of paintings, mainly bird and vegetal, with strong European influences.

Aurangazeb

He did not patronise any arts and painting lost royal patronage but perhaps during his waning years, he may have consented to have his portraits painted, for there are surviving examples where he is shown either as a bearded old man hunting or holding a copy of the Quran in his hand.

PERSIAN LITERATURE

The Mughals proved to be ardent patrons of Persian literature. Persian was adopted as the court language and its literary output covered a wide range of writings, both literary and historical. The Mughal monarchs recorded their own memoirs e.g., Tuzuk-i-Babari by Babur, Gul Badan Begum’s Humayunnama, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri by Jahangir; Abul Fazl’s monumental work, Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama, and various writings of the nobility comprise precious gems of unaccountable value in the evaluation of the history of the period.

The emperors extended enthusiastic patronage to the historical writers and translation important Sanskrit literature. Akbar, for the first time, regularised a translation department that was entrusted the task of translating select Sanskrit, Arabic and even European treatises into Persian. Translation of different sections of the Mahabharata into Persian by many scholars under the title of Razm Namah, the Ramayana by Badauni, Atharva Veda by Sarhindi, Lilawati (a work on mathematics) by Faizi and Rajatarangini by Shahabadi was important.

Translation of some Greek and Arabic works also into Persian was also undertaken. Of the most outstanding works on historiography, Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama of Abul Fazl and Badauni’s Muntakhab-ul-Twarikh, have important pieces of information on Akbar’s reign. On Jahangir’s reign, Iqbalnama and Tarikh-i-Ferishta stand out as important contemporary writings, while Padshahnama by Abdul Hamid Lahori comprises the chief work of Shahjahan’s reign. Of Aurangazeb’s rule, Khafi Khan’s Muntakhab-ul-Lubab and Ishwar Das’s Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri are documents of priceless historical value.

The Mughal royal patronage was equally extended to the growth of Persian poetry. While Humayun himself was fond of composing verses, unprecedented growth was achieved under Akbar whose chief poets were Faizi, Ghizali and Urfi. Abul Fazl has mentioned fifty-nine poets in Akbar’s court. Zeb-un-Nisa (Aurangazeb’s daughter) proved to be an eminent poetess. The subjects covered by the poets, unfortunately, hovered around mainly eulogizing the monarch’s personality and ability.

The period also witnessed remarkable growth in vernacular literature. Akbar, in his zeal to impart a unity of polity to the diversity of culture, became the zealous patron of Hindu literature which attained fresh glories. Writings in Brij Bhasha and Avadhi, though mainly religious in nature, provide an equally elaborate commentary on the social and political ideals to be attained by any society. Of the Ram cult, Tulsidas’s Ramcharita Manas is its immortal replica.

Of the Krishna cult writers, Surdas and his verses compiled in Sursagar’ emerged as yet another outstanding immortal literary feat of Bhakti cult. Of the poets attached to the Mughal court, namely Birbal who has conferred the title of Kavi Raja’, Sundar Das, Chintamani and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, outshone others. Of Rahim’s many works, Rahim Satsai’ till now is an essential part of the school text.

The Mughal royalty’s passion for learning extended to fine calligraphy too. Abul Fazl has mentioned eight styles of artistic writing and mentioned that eminent calligraphists were employed to execute books of the Imperial library. Their work included fine portraits, artistic borders on each page and extremely elegant binding.

The Mughal royalty’s passion for learning extended to fine calligraphy too. Abul Fazl has mentioned eight styles of artistic writing and mentioned that eminent calligraphists were employed to execute books of the Imperial library. Their work included fine portraits, artistic borders on each page and extremely elegant binding. 

MUSIC DURING MUGHALS

Music comprised an essential feature of the Mughal culture. Babur and Humayun were fond of music and devoted their leisure hours to the musicians. As for Akbar, musicians from far and wide and from all races, were patronised. They were arranged in seven groups, one for each day of the week.

The Emperor himself possessed sufficient technical knowledge, played the Nagarrah (drum) and is said to have composed tunes himself. Mian Tansen, hailing from Gwalior, was appointed his poet laureate and is described as the “foremost singer of his age.” Besides Akbar, his courtiers Faizi, Abdur Rahim, Man Singh and Bhagwandas too were great patrons of music. In music too, the blending of Persian and Hindu ideas led to the development of Hindustani music.

Many Sanskrit works were translated into Persian. Shahjahan proved to be a great patron of fine arts. Himself an author of many Hindi songs, he patronised both vocal and instrumental music. Of his leading court musicians, Jagannath and Janardan Bhatta proved foremost. Aurangazeb, on the other hand, while possessing adequate knowledge of the subject, discouraged its use in the court. However, he did patronise instrumental music, and a famous treatise on music was found written in his reign. He is said to play the veena.

Zabti Or Bandobast System

Raja Todar Mal, the Diwan found the old jama (assessment) figures unreliable and hence collected correct figures from the qanungos and in the 15th regnal year the new jama came into force. Khalisa land was divided into circles, each yielding revenue of one karor (crore). That is why it is known as the karori experiment.

Each circle was placed under a revenue official called Karori. The aim was to make as extensive a measurement as possible, then use it as a basis for compiling a new general assessment. Instead of a rope, a jarib made of bamboo sticks joined by iron rings, came to be used for measuring land.

Measurement was not possible in all subahs of the empire. That is why in some subahs the old systems continued. Thus, wherever possible measurement was undertaken and sufficient information was acquired. All these measures were part of a new system of revenue calculation, called the zabti system. 

 Dahsala System – Akbar’s Administrative System

On the basis of the above zabti system, fresh reforms were undertaken by Todar Mal. These reforms were collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala. Under this system land was classified into four categories, viz., polaj – annually cultivated, parauti – left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years), chachar – left fallow for 3 to 4 years, and banjar – uncultivated for 5 years or more.

Todar Mal introduced a uniform unit of measurement, Ilahi gaz, which had 41 digits. Further, a decennial survey of every paragana was conducted to ascertain the category of cultivation and level of prices. The aim was to introduce a permanent jama (dastur ulamal) and remove difficulties and delays associated with yearly sanctions. So in 1580, final dasturs giving cash rates per bigha were prepared for different localities.

 Dahsala System – Mode of Payment

The payment was made generally in cash, though there were some exceptions. For example, in Kashmir and Orissa, it was in kind. 

 Dahsala System – Machinery for Collection

There was a patwari at the village level. He kept a bahi, i.e., a register containing information about cultivators, their lands and assessed revenue. It was the most important document and served as evidence in settling disputes. There were the qanungos at the paragana level who maintained records. At the sarkar level, amil or amalguzar was assisted by karkuns and khazanadar. All these officials worked under the supervision of the provincial diwan, who was directly under the diwan at the centre.

Measurement was not possible in all subahs of the empire. That is why in some subahs the old systems continued. Thus, wherever possible measurement was undertaken and sufficient information was acquired. All these measures were part of a new system of revenue calculation, called the zabti system.

Dahsala System

On the basis of the above zabti system, fresh reforms were undertaken by Todar Mal. These reforms were collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala.  Under this system land was classified into four categories, viz., polaj – annually cultivated, parauti – left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years), chachar – left fallow for 3 to 4 years, and banjar – uncultivated for 5 years or more.

Todar Mal introduced a uniform unit of measurement, Ilahi gaz, which had 41 digits. Further, a decennial survey of every paragana was conducted to ascertain the category of cultivation and level of prices. The aim was to introduce a permanent jama (dastur ulamal) and remove difficulties and delays associated with yearly sanctions. So in 1580, final dasturs giving cash rates per bigha were prepared for different localities.

Provincial Mughal Administration

The empire was divided into several provinces. There were fifteen provinces during the reign of Akbar but the number increased to twenty during the reign of Aurangazeb. The head of the provincial administration was called Nazim or Sipahsalar. The provincial administration was the duplicate copy of the centre. Akbar had given wide powers to his Diwan and all provincial Diwans. were kept under the supervision of the Diwan at the centre. Akbar kept a balance of power between the Subedar and the Diwan by clearly defining their duties so that none of them had the power to revolt.

Check out History of India notes in detail. 

Mughal Administration – Subedar

He was the head of the provincial administration and had maintained peace within his province. He suppressed the revolts, decided criminal cases, constructed roads, bridges and other public utility works and exacted tribute from feudatory chiefs whose territories were within his province.

Mughal Administration – O Diwan

Diwan was the financial officer of the province. He was appointed by the emperor on the advice of the Diwan (wazir) at the centre. He was next to the Subedar in rank and respect within the province but was not subordinated to the Subedar as he was directly under the Wazir at the centre. He collected revenue and other taxes. He looked after agriculture, supervised the income and expenditure of the province, informed the central government regarding the economic condition of the province and decided civil cases.

Mughal Administration – The Bakhshi

His primary responsibility was to look after the military organisation of the province. He managed the recruitment, discipline, training and supplies for the provincial army.

Mughal Administration – Waqaya Navis

He was the head of the spy-department of the province. He sent reports of all affairs and also functioning of all officers including that of the Subedar and the Diwan to the central government.

Mughal Administration – Kotwal

In every provincial capital and every city, there was a Kotwal who maintained peace and looked after the cleanliness, public services, visitors, etc., in the city. He was a military officer and maintained sufficient soldiers with him.

Mughal Administration – The Sadr and the Qazi

In provinces, mostly these two offices were given to the same person. He was subordinated to the chief Sadr and the chief Qazi at the centre. As the Sadr, he supervised that the Muslims practised Islamic laws and the subjects, in general, observed morality and as the Oazi he dispensed justice, solemnised marriages and led the Friday prayers.

The Sarkar (District)

Every province or Subah was divided into a number of districts called Sarkars for the convenience of administration.

The Faujdar

The Faujdar was the military officer of the district. His primary duty was to maintain peace in the district, provide security to the subjects and enforce the laws of the state. He was appointed by the emperor directly though he was subordinated to the Subedar.

The Amal Guzar

He was the finance officer of the district and was subordinated to the provincial Diwan. He collected the revenue and other taxes, protected agriculture and punished the guilty ones. He was in charge of the district treasury as well.

 The Bitikchi

He worked under the Amal Guzar, He prepared all papers concerning the lands of the peasants and was the custodian of all records. He also gave the receipt of payment of the revenue to the cultivators.

Khazandar

He worked under the Amal Guzar and was the treasurer of the district.

THE PARAGANA

Every district (Sarkar) was divided into several paraganas.

• The Shiqdar

He was a military officer and head of the administration of the Paragana. He maintained peace and order and helped in the collection of the revenue.

• The Amil

He was the finance officer of the Paragana. His primary duty was to collect the revenue and, therefore, he was in direct contact with the cultivators. 

• The Fotedar

He was the treasurer of the paragana.

• The Qanungo

He was the head of village patwaris. He prepared all papers concerning agriculture and the collection of revenue. Karkuns were the clerks who helped different officers in preparing records and all papers concerning administration. 

• The Village

The Mughals did not take the responsibility of administering villages. Therefore, the .. administration of villages was left in the hands of local village Panchayats. 

Shah Jahan (1627-58)

Jahangir’s death made war for the throne imminent. Asaf Khan asked Khurram to come to Agra and played for time by proclaiming Khusrau’s son Dawar Baksh, king. Shahryar proclaimed himself king but Asaf Khan defeated and imprisoned him. Before Khurram reached Agra, Dawar Baksh and his brother Shahryar were beheaded. Khurram proclaimed himself emperor as Shah Jahan. The coldblooded murder of all possible contenders for the throne had removed any threat from the imperial family to Shah Jahan’s rule. Nur Jahan was pensioned off to Lahore where she stayed till her death.

Shah Jahan waged a war against the Bundela chiefs. Jujhar Singh, and his son, Vikramajit. defeated and eventually murdered them. But Shah Jahan’s imperial policies were more successful in the Deccan. Malik Ambar had died and Shah Jahan enticed some Maratha leaders into his service. The most eminent among them was Shahji Bhonsle, Shivaji’s father. In 1633. Shah Jahan arrived at Daulatabad and the Ahmadnagar kingdom was unable to resist the Mug onslaught and was annexed. Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with the Khandesh, Berar, Telengana and Daulatabad were made into four Mughal provinces.

When Iranians invaded Kandahar, Khurram was given the command to repel the Iranians, Khurram hesitated and Shahryar was commissioned to lead the campaign. Finding no way out, Khurram rebelled and marched towards Agra. Asaf Khan supported Khurram in the civil war (1622-24) but Khurram was unable to stand the harassment by the powerful general, Mahabat Khan and so ultimately surrendered and was pardoned. Jahangir’s health declined and in 1627, the emperor died at Bhimbar in Kashmir.

The emperor’s dead body was sent to Lahore for burial in the Dilkusha garden of Shahdara. Jahangir wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, in which he frankly talks about his vices and reflects his deep appreciation of nature, as well as his passion for painting. The first viceroy, Aurangazeb governed all four provinces twice (1636-1644 and 1652-1657). He made Khirki, founded by Malik Ambar, the capital of the Mughal Deccan and named it Aurangabad.

War of Succession

Shah Jahan’s sudden illness in 1657 plunged the empire into a civil war among his four sons – Dara Shikoh (crown-prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Though Shah Jahan had recovered by November 1657, the princes refused to believe the news and because they wanted to liberate Shah Jahan from Dara’s control. Aurangazeb rejected all Shah Jahan’s invitations to visit him and confined him within the ladies’ palace, and Aurangazeb refused to see his father until he had killed Dara, whom he declared an infidel. Aurangazeb treacherously murdered Murad and later Shuja after defeating him in the battle of Khajiva. Before he defeated Shuja, he had crowned himself emperor with the title Alamgir (conqueror of the universe). He defeated Dara at Samugarh forcing him flee to the north-west where he was betrayed by an Afghan chief and handed over to the Mughals. Dara was brought to Delhi, in 1659, humiliated and sentenced to death for stating in his Majma-ul-Bahrain that Islam and Hinduism were twin brothers. Shah Jahan died only in 1666, and was tended throughout his captivity by his daughter, Jahanara. His remains were buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.

Rajput Policy During Mughals

Akbar’s treatment of the Rajputs was not the outcome of thoughtless sentiment but was a result of a deliberate policy. based on the principles of enlightened self-interest, recognition of merit, justice and fair play. Akbar had realised at an early age that most of his Muslim nobles were not loyal while the Rajputs who were the masters of the large strategic region of Rajputana were renowned for their valour and fidelity, could be depended upon and converted as friends.

So he accepted the submission of Raja Bharamal Kachchhwaha of Amber who married his eldest daughter to Akbar. Raja Bhagawan Das (Raja Bharamal’s heir) and Man Singh (his nephew and adopted son) were subsequently given senior positions in the imperial hierarchy, One by one all the Rajput states submitted to Akbar and they were either given compensation or were absorbed into Mughal service.

But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy Mughal suzerainty despite several defeats, particularly the one in the battle of Haldighati (1576) in which Rana Pratap was severely defeated by the Mughal army under Man Singh. But Rana Pratap recaptured a large part of the area and Mewar was only annexed during Jahangir’s reign.

The Mughal Empire And Its Founder – Muhammad Babur

Importance of Mughal Rule in Indian History

The first quarter of the 16th century witnessed the emergence of the Mughals – a remarkable dynasty who like the Tudors in England heralded a new age in all spheres. The Mughals too, like their Turko-Afghan predecessors, hailed from Central Asia. The Mughals, with their rule of over two centuries, not only successfully bestowed peace, law and order upon the country but also imparted a sense of continuity and unity to the people. Culturally, the period coincided with the attainment of unprecedented glory in various spheres of art and literature. In the religious sphere too, for the first time, Babur and later, Akbar inaugurated a political rule devoid of all religious prejudice. As the founder of this dynamic dynasty, Babur inevitably stands out.

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur

was born on February 14, 1483, in Ferghana, of which his father, Umar Shaikh Mirza, was the ruler. He descended from two central Asian warriors; Timur, the Turkish hero from his father’s side and Chengiz Khan from his mother’s side. His family belonged to the Chagtai section of the Turkish race, but he was commonly known as “Mughal’.

Though Babur succeeded his father, Shaikh Mirza as ruler of Farghana, he was soon defeated and deprived of his kingdom by a distant relative, Shaibani Khan Uzbek. Reduced to a mere fugitive, Babur soon took Kabul from one of his uncles and developed an interest in the conquest of India. He launched four expeditions between 1519 and 1523.

Towards the end of 1525, Babur left Kabul to conquer India. Daulat Khan Lodi, the Lodi governor of Lahore, surrendered to Babur after some initial resistance. His victory over the Afghans under Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat (1526) laid the foundation of the Mughal dynasty in India. – Then his subsequent victories over the Rajputs under Rana Sanga of Mewar in the battle of Khanwa near Agra (1527), and the Afghans under Muhammad Lodi in the battle of Ghagara in Bihar (1529) consolidated the Mughal power in India. Though Babur died at Agra in 1530, his body was taken to Kabul and buried in a garden called Aram Bagh, The Tuzuk-i-Baburi, his memoirs in Turki (his mother tongue), is a great work in which he frankly confesses his own failures. Babur was a devoted follower of the Naqshbandiya order.

GUJARAT

The rich province of Gujarat occupied a prominent place among the provincial kingdoms which arose on the ruins of the Delhi sultanate. Zafar Khan, appointed as governor of Gujarat in 1391 by one of the later Tughluqs (Muhammad bin Firuz Tughluq), exercised independent power from the beginning. But he assumed the insignia of royalty and took the title of Muzaffar Shah only in 1407-08.

He started a long drawn out struggle with Malwa which became a prominent feature of the history of western India. He defeated and captured Hushang Shah of Malwa and temporarily occupied his kingdom. Ahmad Shah I (1411-42), grandson and successor of Malwa and Khandesh as also one of the Hindu rulers as well. He followed a policy of persecution of Hindus by suppressing Hindu zamindars, destroying Hindu temples and imposing jeziya for the first time in Gujarat.

He founded the city of Ahemadabad which replaced Anhilwara as the capital of Gujarat. The greatest Sultan of Gujarat was, however, Mahmud Shah I (1458-1511), who is popularly known as Begarha’ because he conquered the two strong Rajput forts (Garh) of Girnar and Champaner. He fought against several Muslim and Hindu rulers, including Mahmud Khalji I of Malwa. Under him, the kingdom reached its highest extent. He had problems only from the Portuguese who smashed his navy but negotiated a peaceful settlement.

Bahadur Shah (1526-37)

was the last energetic Sultan of Gujarat. He conquered and annexed Malwa, and after Rana Sanga’s defeat and death at Khanwa, sacked Chittor. At the fag end of his reign, Humayun invaded Gujarat and occupied a part of it. But when Humayun retreated to tackle Sher Khan in the east, Bahadur recovered his lost territory. Meanwhile, the Portuguese, who had earlier entered into an alliance with him (1535) and gained some concessions, started posing problems to him.

He fell into the sea in a scuffle with the Portuguese on board a ship while conducting negotiations with them. With Bahadur’s death, the glory of independent Gujarat also vanished for his successors were mere puppets in the hands of the turbulent nobles and its extinction by Akbar was only a matter of time.

Malwa

The province of Malwa, like that of Gujarat, became an independent kingdom during the period of decline of the sultanate of Delhi under the later Tughluqs. Dilawar Khan Ghuri, appointed governor of Malwa in 1390-91, exercised independent power for some years and formally assumed independence in 1401-02.

Though Dhar was his capital, he began to develop Mandu as his capital. Alp Khan, son and successor of Dilawar, became the next ruler with the title of Hushang Buon 25) He made Mandu his new capital and founded a new town, which was named Hushangabad. He was a patron of architecture and Islamic learning and followed a liberal policy towards his Hindu subjects.

The Ghurid dynasty was replaced by the Khalji dynasty in 1436. Mahmud Khalji I (1436-69), the founder of the new dynasty was the most powerful Sultan of Malwa, which reached its greatest extent during his reign he invaded Mewar. Gujarat and the Bahmani kingdom, amongst not veld him any permanent gains. He was also a careful and efficient administrator, encouraged agriculture, trade, and commerce. The last ruler of the Khalji dynasty was Mahmud II (15111-31), who was weak and dependent on the support of his nobles. There was constant friction between his Hindu and Muslim nobles.

A Rajput named Medini Rai played the leading role for some years. In 1531, Bahadur Shah of Gujarat captured Mandu and annexed it to his dominions. During the next 30 years (1531-61), Malwa passed through several political changes. It was captured by the Mughal emperor Humayun from Bahadur Shah. After Humayun’s departure from Malwa, a former officer of the Khaljis, Mallu Khan, took over. Then Malwa passed under the control of Sher Shah and his Afghan governors. Ultimately Akbar conquered it in 1561 from Baz Bahadur, son of Sujaat Khan who was the governor of Malwa under Islam Shah Sur.

Khandesh

Malik Raja Faruqi (1389-99) was the founder of the principality of Khandesh, located in the Tapti Valley. Appointed earlier as its governor by Firuz Shah Tughluq, he set himself up as an independent ruler following Firuz’s death and the subsequent confusion in the Delhi sultanate. Nasir Khan (1399-1437), the son and successor of Malik Raja, captured the strong fortress of Asirgarh from a Hindu chieftain.

When he invaded Gujarat in alliance with Malwa, he was defeated and had to acknowledge the suzerainty of Ahmad Shah of Gujarat. Next came the reign of Adil Khan” II (1457-1503), who was a capable and enterprising ruler. He established his suzerainty on the Hindu rulers of Gondwana and Garh-Mandala.

But when he repudiated his allegiance to Gujarat and withheld the annual payment of tribute, Mahmud Begarha led an invasion into Khandesh and compelled him to fall in line. He strengthened Asirgarh and also built the famous citadel of Burhanpur. The later rulers of the Faruqi dynasty were quite incapable. Taking advantage of the factional strife within Khandesh, the Sultans of Gujarat and the Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar frequently interfered in its internal affairs. Ultimately Akbar annexed it in 1601.

Check out History of India notes in detail. 

Guru Nanak

like Kabir, preached harmony between Hinduism and Islam. He was born in 1469 at the village of Talwandi (modern Nankana), near Lahore. Nanak was given formal education and employed as an assistant to his brother-in-law, who was a grain merchant. But his accounts fell into disorder, and he left service. He began to evince a keen interest in religion. He spent the rest of his life in preaching across the country. He preached the gospel of universal toleration and was against external formalities of Hinduism and against caste and religious fanaticism. His message was one of unity of God and personal love for him. He had both Hindu and Muslim disciples. He nominated Angad, one of his disciples, as his successor who gave unity and organisation to his followers. Gradually, they became known as the Sikhs.

Another version of the Bhakti movement appeared in Maharashtra in the 13th century called the Maharashtra Dharma and Jnanadeva was its founder. His work Jnaneshwari, a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita earned him the title of Jnaneshwar. The second saint, Namadeva, who belonged to the tailor caste, preached the gospel of love and was opposed to idol worship and the caste system under Brahmanical domination. His compositions called cabanas are even found in the Adi Granth. Another such saint was Eknath. 

But the tallest of them perhaps was Tukaram, a devotee of Lord Vitthal of Pandharpur who was responsible for creating a background for Maratha nationalism. Shivaji, a contemporary of Tukaram, drew inspiration from the teachings of this saint and founded the Maratha kingdom.

Tukaram

was similar to Kabir in his conception of God and religion, besides his opposition to ritualism and the caste system. While Tukaram laid the background for the rise of Maratha nationalism under Shivaji, Ramadas, a saint who is a religious teacher also evinced a keen interest in politics and was the guru of Shivaji, influenced him to expand the Maratha kingdom and overthrow the Mughal rule. He authored the work called Dasabodha, which gave advice on all aspects of life and expanded the scope of Maharashtra Dharma.

The bhakti cult was a widespread movement and embraced the whole country. It was a movement of the people and perhaps, there had never been a more widespread and popular movement in our country than the bhakti movement. It had two main objects in view. One was to reform the Hindu religion so as to enable it to withstand the onslaught of Islamic propaganda and proselytism. Its second object was to bring about reconciliation between Hinduism and Islam and to foster friendly relations between the two communities.

The movement incidentally became responsible for the evolution and enrichment of our vernacular literature. The reformers preached to the masses through their mother tongue and, therefore, gradually enriched our modern languages, such as Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, etc. The period of the Bhakti movement, therefore, proved to be a golden period in the history of the growth of our vernacular kinds of literature.

Rise of Sikhism

The rise of a separate community which later developed into a separate religion called Sikhism was a direct outcome of the Bhakti movement. Though Nanak did not aim at establishing a separate religion, he had nominated a successor, Angad to propagate his teachings. Guru Angad became the head and organised the followers of Nanak who came to be known as Sikhs, a corrupt form of the Sanskrit word, sisya or disciple.

Guru Angad started the new script called Gurumukhi and all the hymns were written in the new script. Guru Arjun Dev, the fifth guru compiled the hymns into the Adi Granth and constructed the Harmandir Sahib at Amritsar. He was executed by Jahangir because he blessed the rebel prince Khusrau. The sixth Guru, Guru Har Gobind armed the Sikhs, the first move to make the Sikhs a martial community. When the ninth Guru, Guru Tej Bahadur was executed by Aurangzeb on charges of inspiring a rebellion, the last Guru, Guru Gobind Singh made the Sikhs a true martial community. He formed the Khalsa Brotherhood, compiled the Guru Granth Sahib and resisted the suppression of Aurangzeb till his death. His birthplace, Patna is still a famous pilgrimage site for the Sikhs.

Check out History of India notes in detail.