The Mughal Empire

Rajput Policy

Akbar’s treatment of the Rajputs was not the outcome of thoughtless sentiment but was a result of a deliberate policy. based on the principles of enlightened self-interest, recognition of merit, justice and fair play. Akbar had realised at an early age that most of his Muslim nobles were not loyal while the Rajputs who were the masters of the large strategic region of Rajputana were renowned for their valour and fidelity, could be depended upon and converted as friends.

So he accepted the submission of Raja Bharamal Kachchhwaha of Amber who married his eldest daughter to Akbar. Raja Bhagawan Das (Raja Bharamal’s heir) and Man Singh (his nephew and adopted son) were subsequently given senior positions in the imperial hierarchy, One by one all the Rajput states submitted to Akbar and they were either given compensation or were absorbed into Mughal service.

But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy Mughal suzerainty despite several defeats, particularly the one in the battle of Haldighati (1576) in which Rana Pratap was severely defeated by the Mughal army under Man Singh. But Rana Pratap recaptured a large part of the area and Mewar was only annexed during Jahangir’s reign.

Check out History of India notes in detail.

Religious Policy

Akbar was born and brought up in comparatively liberal surroundings. His Sunni, his mother a Persian Shia, and he were born in the house of a Hindu Akbar’s most notable tutor, Abdul Latif, who was liberal in his religious views taught him the principle of Suleh-i-Kul (universal peace) which Akbar never forgot. Thus the king and environment combined to influence Akbar’s religious views in the direction of moeras even before he was twenty, he abolished the pernicious practise of enslaving the prisoners of War and converting them to Islam. The pilgrim tax, a tax on Hindu pilgrims visiting their holy shrines, was abolished in 1563.

The next year a revolutionary measure was enacted which was the abolition of the hated Jeziya or poll tax on non-Muslims, which all previous Muslim rulers (even his father and grandfather) had thought it a religious duty to realise. Although his measure marked a fundamental departure in his religious policy, Akbar, nevertheless, in his personal life, continued for many years to be good, though tolerant Muslim who not only said his daily five prayers but also went through other observances of his religion. Every year, he devoutly performed the pilgrimage to the mausoleum of Shaikh Muin-ud-din Chishti at Ajmer.

Their irresponsible behaviour and quarrels, their inability to their behaviour and quarrels, their inability to explain satisfactorily the fundamental doctrines of Islam, convinced Akbar that truth must be sought outside their bickerings of members of other faiths, such as Hindus, Jains, Zorastrai He threw open the debates of members of other faiths defeated by the Mughal army under Man Singh. But Rana Pratap recaptured a large part of the area and Mewar was only annexed during Jahangir’s reign. Religious Policy :

Akbar was born and brought up in comparatively liberal surroundings. His Sunni, his mother a Persian Shia, and he were born in the house of a Hindu Akbar’s most notable tutor, Abdul Latif, who was liberal in his religious views taught him the principle of Suleh-i-Kul (universal peace) which Akbar never forgot. Thus ” ng and environment combined to influence Akbar’s religious views in the direction of moeras: Da before he was twenty, he abolished the pernicious practise of enslaving the prisoners of War and converting them to Islam. The pilgrim tax, a tax on Hindu pilgrims visiting their holy shrines, was abolished in 1563.

Possessed of an impulsive bent of mind, he desired to understand the principles of his religion. With this object in view, in 1575, he erected a building at Fatehpur Sikri, called Ibadat Khana (House of Worship), in which regular religious discussions were held on Thursday evenings. In the beginning, the debates were confined to the Muslims but the Ulemas quarrelled among themselves on fundamental questions of Islamic theology and openly exhibited unworthy intolerance with other’s views. Their irresponsible behaviour and quarrels, their inability to their behaviour and quarrels, their inability to explain satisfactorily the fundamental doctrines of Islam, convinced Akbar that truth must be sought outside their bickerings of members of other faiths, such as Hindus, Jains, Zorastrai He threw open the debates of members of other faiths with Akbar, his main object was the fusion of Hinduism and Islam and the establishment of cultural as well as political unity in the empire. The innovation was the outcome of his policy of universal toleration and his commitment to national idealism.

Prince Salim’s Rebellion

Prince Salim, the long-awaited heir to the Mughal throne, was born in 1569 to a Kachchwaha queen due to the blessings of Shaikh Salim Chisti, after whom the infant was named. When prince Salim rebelled in Allahabad in 1601, Akbar sent Abul Fazl to deal with the rebellion but Salim had him killed by the Bundela chief, Bir Singh, on his way to Agra. Akbar’s mother, Hamida Banu Begum, and his aunt, Gulbadan Begum, interceded for the prince and softened Akbar’s resentment. When Akbar died in 1605, Salim was put on the throne.

Jahangir (1605-27)

Prince Salim assumed the title of Jahangir (World Conqueror) on his coronation and declared his commitment to Akbar’s ideals of secularism. In 1611, Jahangir married Mehr-un-Nisa, the widow of Sher Afghan, who was killed fighting the governor of Bengal. After her marriage, Mehr-un-nisa was given the title Nur Mahal (Light of the Palace) and, later, Nur Jahan (Light of World). Nur Jahan’s father, Itimad-ud-daula was made wazir after his daughter’s marriage to the emperor. Nur Jahan’s elder brother, Mirza Abul Hasan, was given the title Asaf Khan and was appointed khan-i-saman. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later entitled Mumtaz Mahal), married Jahangir’s third son, Prince Khurram.

Jahangir’s greatest achievement was to secure the surrender of Maharana Pratap’s successor, Amar Singh in 1615. After Mewar, the Deccan was Jahangir’s main concern. But Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar pursued his guerrilla tactics with greater vigour and Mughal invasions were repeatedly beaten back. In 1606 Jahangir’s son, Khusrau, revolted but was defeated and imprisoned. One of Khusrau’s well-wishers, Guru Arjan Dev (5th guru of the Sikhs), was beheaded. Later Khusrau was blinded in order to disqualify him permanently from gaining the throne.

Khusrau died at Burhanpur in 1621 in the custody of Khurram. Their youngest brother, Shahryar, was incompetent, although his betrothal to Ladili Begum, Nur Jahan’s daughter made him the real contender to the throne.

When Iranians invaded Kandahar, Khurram was given the command to repel the Iranians, Khurram hesitated and Shahryar was commissioned to lead the campaign. Finding no way out, Khurram rebelled and marched towards Agra. Asaf Khan supported Khurram in the civil war (1622-24) but Khurram was unable to stand the harassment by the powerful general, Mahabat Khan and so ultimately surrendered and was pardoned. Jahangir’s health declined and in 1627, the emperor died at Bhimbar in Kashmir.

Shah Jahan (1627-58)

Jahangir’s death made war for the throne imminent. Asaf Khan asked Khurram to come to Agra and played for time by proclaiming Khusrau’s son Dawar Baksh, king. Shahryar proclaimed himself king but Asaf Khan defeated and imprisoned him. Before Khurram reached Agra, Dawar Baksh and his brother Shahryar were beheaded. Khurram proclaimed himself emperor as Shah Jahan. The coldblooded murder of all possible contenders for the throne had removed any threat from the imperial family to Shah Jahan’s rule. Nur Jahan was pensioned off to Lahore where she stayed till her death.

Shah Jahan waged a war against the Bundela chiefs. Jujhar Singh, and his son, Vikramajit. defeated and eventually murdered them. But Shah Jahan’s imperial policies were more successful in the Deccan. Malik Ambar had died and Shah Jahan enticed some Maratha leaders into his service. The most eminent among them was Shahji Bhonsle, Shivaji’s father. In 1633. Shah Jahan arrived at Daulatabad and the Ahmadnagar kingdom was unable to resist the Mug onslaught and was annexed. Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with the Khandesh, Berar, Telengana and Daulatabad were made into four Mughal provinces.

The emperor’s dead body was sent to Lahore for burial in the Dilkusha garden of Shahdara. Jahangir wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, in which he frankly talks about his vices and reflects his deep appreciation of nature, as well as his passion for painting. The first viceroy, Aurangazeb governed all four provinces twice (1636-1644 and 1652-1657). He made Khirki, founded by Malik Ambar, the capital of the Mughal Deccan and named it Aurangabad.

War of Succession

Shah Jahan’s sudden illness in 1657 plunged the empire into a civil war among his four sons – Dara Shikoh (crown-prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Though Shah Jahan had recovered by November 1657, the princes refused to believe the news and because they wanted to liberate Shah Jahan from Dara’s control. Aurangazeb rejected all Shah Jahan’s invitations to visit him and confined him within the ladies’ palace, and Aurangazeb refused to see his father until he had killed Dara, whom he declared an infidel. Aurangazeb treacherously murdered Murad and later Shuja after defeating him in the battle of Khajiva. Before he defeated Shuja, he had crowned himself emperor with the title Alamgir (conqueror of the universe). He defeated Dara at Samugarh forcing him flee to the north-west where he was betrayed by an Afghan chief and handed over to the Mughals. Dara was brought to Delhi, in 1659, humiliated and sentenced to death for stating in his Majma-ul-Bahrain that Islam and Hinduism were twin brothers. Shah Jahan died only in 1666, and was tended throughout his captivity by his daughter, Jahanara. His remains were buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.

Aurangazeb (1658-1707)

Within a year of his accession, Aurangazeb took steps to repair the ravage done by the prolonged war of succession which had also thrown the administration out of gear and caused misery throughout northern India. First of all, he established law and order by bringing the governors and other important officers under proper control. Next, he gave much needed relief to the people by abolishing many illegal taxes, and even the abwabs or miscellaneous taxes levied over and above the regular land revenue and customs duty.

As the champion of Sunni orthodoxy, Aurangazeb issued a number of ordinances to make the Muslims conform to the orthodox rules of conduct as taught by the Quran. He gave up the practice of inscribing the Kalima on the coins. Next, he discontinued the observance of Nauroz, as it was un-Islamic, and forbade the cultivation of bhang throughout the empire. He appointed censors of public morals (muhtasibs) in all important cities to enforce the Quranic law and to put down drinking, gambling and prostitution. The muhtasibs were also required to see that Muslims prayed five times every day and kept the fast of Ramzan. In 1669, a general order to demolish temples and Hindu centres of learning was issued. The celebrated Visvanatha temple of Benaras and the Kesava Rai temple of Mathura were demolished. In April 1679, he reimposed jeziya despite Hindu protests.

The first ten years of Aurangazeb’s rule were militarily and politically a great success. By 1661, Mir · Jumla seized Cooch-Behar and marched up the Brahmaputra, Next year he entered Garhgaon (near Gauhati), the Ahom capital. The Ahom army fled but their continued attacks, combined with pestilence and famine forced Mir Jumla to make peace with the Ahom Raja but died on his way to Dacca. Aurangazeb’s early success is overshadowed by his later setbacks. The excesses committed by the faujdar of Mathura, aroused the Jats around Mathura and Agra to rise in revolt under Gokla, who killed the faujdar.

The emperor himself marched to the area, captured and executed Gokla (1661). But the Jats found their leader in Churaman, who strengthened the Jat fort near Bharatpur and fearlessly sacked regions around Agra and Delhi. The next formidable rebellion was that of the Satnamis in the districts of Narnaul and Mewar. The Satnamis were a peaceful religious brotherhood who believed in the unity of God and were employed in agriculture. The rebellion was due to a private quarrel between a Satnami peasant and a Mughal foot soldier. The movement spread quickly and the Satnamis scored a number of victories over the imperial troops under local officers. Aurangazeb was compelled to send a large army under Radandaz Khan, who brutally defeated them and terrorised them into submission.

The ninth guru of the Sikhs, Tej Bahadur, offended Aurangzeb by his preachings and in 1675, he was beheaded on the orders of the qazi of Delhi. Guru Gobind, the tenth guru, reinterpreted the Sikh ideologies to justify military action. The Sikhs who accepted the rite of baptism which he devised were known as the Khalsa (pure) and were given the title of Singh (Lion).

A Mughal reinforcement besieged the Sikh stronghold of Anandpur and though the guru evacuated the fort, his two sons were savagely executed by Wazir Khan, the Sirhind faujdar. The Sikhs and the Mughals clashed repeatedly till Aurangazeb’s death. A serious challenge to Aurangazeb, however, came in 1678 when Maharaja Jaswant Singh died in the north-western tribal region. He had no heirs, but one of his pregnant queens gave birth to a posthumous son, Ajit Singh.

As the paramount power, Aurangazeb’ annexed the whole of Marwar. Indra Singh Rathor, a grand-nephew of Jaswant, was subsequently made Raja of Jodhpur. Though Ajit Singh was put under house arrest in Delhi, the Rathors under Durgadas rescued and took him to Marwar. Maharana Raj Singh of Mewar joined Jaswant’s chief queen, Rani Hadi, in pressing Ajit’s right to his father’s throne.

In 1679, the emperor ordered his fourth son, Akbar, to invade Marwar. But the prince instead declared himself emperor in 1681 with the support of the Rajputs. Aurangazeb, soon marched against him and managed to alienate the Rajputs from Akbar by using deceitful means. The Rajputs deserted Akbar and so Akbar fled to the court of Sivaji’s son Sambhaji. Aurangazeb left for the Deccan in September 1681 (this marks the second part of his reign, which was a disaster), never to return to the north. In the Deccan, Shivaji carved out an independent Maratha state in the territories north and south of Konkan. To contain the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur. It was annexed in 1686 and the Adil Shah dynasty came to an end. Bijapur was made the seat of the Mughal provincial governor.

Next, Aurangazeb turned his attention towards the kingdom of Golkonda where Abul Hasan, the last Qutb Shahi ruler, had placed the administration in the hands of two Brahman ministers Akkanna and Madanna and spent most of his time in pleasure-seeking. The Hindu influence at Golkonda and the latter’s alliance with the Marathas were particularly offensive to Aurangazeb.

In July 1687, Aurangazeb sent Shah Alam to capture Hyderabad; but the prince failed. But in October, the commander-in-chief of the Golkonda army was bribed by the Mughals and he deserted his master to join Aurangazeb. The sultan fled and Hyderabad was occupied by Shah Alam. The Muslim nobles and the two dowager queens of Golkonda had Madanna and Akkanna murdered. This was followed by a general attack on the Hindu population of Golkonda.

MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

THE CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

The Mughal emperors brought about certain fundamental changes in the administrative structure in India. Babur, the founder of the Mughal emperor assumed the title of Padshah (emperor) which was continued by his successors. It meant that the Mughal emperors did not accept the Khalifa even as their nominal overlord. Akbar further enhanced the power and prestige of the emperor by declaring himself the arbiter in case of differences of opinions regarding Islamic laws.

The Mughal rule was also not theocratic. Except for Aurangazeb, no other Mughal emperor attempted to carry his administration on principles of Islam. The emperors accepted two primary duties for themselves – Jahanbani (protection of the state) and Jahangiri (extension of the empire). Besides, they tried to create those conditions which were .conducive to the economic and cultural progress of their subjects. Another novelty of the Mughals was that they began the policy of religious toleration.

Only Aurangazeb reversed the policy of Akbar. All these new innovations in polity made the Mughal administration different from the administration of the Sultans of Delhi in many respects. Akbar raised the structure of the Mughal administration. It persisted till the reign of Aurangazeb with minor changes. The weak successors of Aurangazeb, however, could not maintain it and the result was virtual anarchy.

The King

The Emperor was the head of the state. He was the lawmaker, the chief executive, the commander-in-chief of the army and the final dispenser of justice. His ministers and nobles could advise him but he was the final arbiter in everything. From the time of Akbar, the emperor was regarded as God’s representative on earth.

That is why Akbar started practices like Jharokha Darshan (a predominantly Hindu practice where the king appeared on the balcony in full regalia for the view of the public) and Tula Dan (weighing of the emperor on his birthdays in gold and silver and then distributing them as alms to the poor). Thus, the theory of kingship of the Mughals was near to the Hindu theory of kingship.

By concentrating all powers in their hands and believing that the king was the representative of God on earth, the Mughal emperors were perfect despots. But, they were enlightened, benevolent despots who believed that the foremost duty of a king was to look after the welfare of his subjects. Every Mughal emperor, including Aurangzeb, worked very hard to attain this object.

The Prime Minister (Vakil-i-mutlaq; Diwan)

Akbar gave this post to Bairam Khan whereby, he was the protector of the state and was above all other ministers with the right of even appointing and dismissing them. But no other man was given these powers after the fall of Bairam Khan. The Prime Minister’s functions were over to the Diwan or the Finance Minister who was made equivalent to the Prime Minister.

Primarily, the Diwan looked after the income and expenditure of the state. Besides, he looked after the administration in absence of the emperor from the capital and commanded the army on occasions. The prime minister supervised the working of other departments, collected news from provinces, dispatched orders of the emperor to governors and looked after the correspondence of the state.

The Mir Bakhshi

He was in charge of the military department. In no way, he was the commander-in-chief of the army. He managed the recruitment of the soldiers, maintained their huliya, looked after the branding of the horses and the elephants, looked after all sorts of supplies to the army and training of the soldiers. He also deputed Mansabdars for the security of the palace and changed them every day. He was also the head of the nobility and was the head of all Mansabdar affairs.

Sadr-us-Sadur (Chief Sadar)

He advised the emperor on religious matters. He looked after charity, religious education, distribution of jagirs to scholars and observance of the laws of Islam by the Muslims. Sometimes the posts of Sadr-us-Sadur and chief Qazi were combined.

The Chief Qazi

Though the emperor was the highest judicial authority in the state, yet, he was assisted by chief Qazi at the capital. While the muftis interpreted Islamic laws, the chief Qazi declared the judgement. He also appointed Qazis in provinces, districts, etc.

The Muhtasib

He looked after the moral development of the subjects, particularly it was his job to see that the Muslims observed Muslim laws. He also checked drinking of liquor, gambling and illegal relations between men and women. He also kept control over weights and measures and observed that articles were sold in the market at proper prices. During the reign of Aurangazeb, he was assigned the responsibility of destroying the schools and temples of the Hindus.

Khan-i-Saman

He was not a minister during the reign of Akbar but was ranked as one of the ministers after him. He looked after the personal necessities of the emperor and his family and also that of the palace. One of his important duties was to manage the royal Karkhanas or workshops which manufactured articles necessary for the royal household.

Mir-i-Atish or Daroga-i-Topkhana

He was incharge of the artillery of the emperor. It was an important office and was mostly assigned to a Turk or a Persian.

Daroga-i-Dak-chauki

He was the head of the spy department of the state. He collected news from various Vaqia-i-navises and Khufia-navises who were appointed by him in provinces and elsewhere. He had to keep the emperor informed about every important affair within the empire.

THE PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

The empire was divided into several provinces. There were fifteen provinces during the reign of Akbar but the number increased to twenty during the reign of Aurangazeb. The head of the provincial administration was called Nazim or Sipahsalar. The provincial administration was the duplicate copy of the centre. Akbar had given wide powers to his Diwan and all provincial Diwans. were kept under the supervision of the Diwan at the centre. Akbar kept a balance of power between the Subedar and the Diwan by clearly defining their duties so that none of them had the power to revolt.

Subedar

He was the head of the provincial administration and had maintained peace within his province. He suppressed the revolts, decided criminal cases, constructed roads, bridges and other public utility works and exacted tribute from feudatory chiefs whose territories were within his province.

O Diwan

Diwan was the financial officer of the province. He was appointed by the emperor on the advice of the Diwan (wazir) at the centre. He was next to the Subedar in rank and respect within the province but was not subordinated to the Subedar as he was directly under the Wazir at the centre. He collected revenue and other taxes. He looked after agriculture, supervised the income and expenditure of the province, informed the central government regarding the economic condition of the province and decided civil cases.

The Bakhshi

His primary responsibility was to look after the military organisation of the province. He managed the recruitment, discipline, training and supplies for the provincial army.

Waqaya Navis

He was the head of the spy-department of the province. He sent reports of all affairs and also functioning of all officers including that of the Subedar and the Diwan to the central government.

Kotwal

In every provincial capital and every city, there was a Kotwal who maintained peace and looked after the cleanliness, public services, visitors, etc., in the city. He was a military officer and maintained sufficient soldiers with him.

The Sadr and the Qazi

In provinces, mostly these two offices were given to the same person. He was subordinated to the chief Sadr and the chief Qazi at the centre. As the Sadr, he supervised that the Muslims practised Islamic laws and the subjects, in general, observed morality and as the Oazi he dispensed justice, solemnised marriages and led the Friday prayers.

THE SARKAR (DISTRICT)

Every province or Subah was divided into a number of districts called Sarkars for the convenience of administration.

The Faujdar

The Faujdar was the military officer of the district. His primary duty was to maintain peace in the district, provide security to the subjects and enforce the laws of the state. He was appointed by the emperor directly though he was subordinated to the Subedar.

The Amal Guzar

He was the finance officer of the district and was subordinated to the provincial Diwan. He collected the revenue and other taxes, protected agriculture and punished the guilty ones. He was in charge of the district treasury as well.

The Bitikchi

He worked under the Amal Guzar, He prepared all papers concerning the lands of the peasants and was the custodian of all records. He also gave the receipt of payment of the revenue to the cultivators.

Khazandar

He worked under the Amal Guzar and was the treasurer of the district.

THE PARAGANA

Every district (Sarkar) was divided into several paraganas.

The Shiqdar

He was a military officer and head of the administration of the Paragana. He maintained peace and order and helped in the collection of the revenue.

The Amil

He was the finance officer of the Paragana. His primary duty was to collect the revenue and, therefore, he was in direct contact with the cultivators.

The Fotedar

He was the treasurer of the paragana.

The Qanungo

He was the head of village patwaris. He prepared all papers concerning agriculture and the collection of revenue. Karkuns were the clerks who helped different officers in preparing records and all papers concerning administration.

The Village

The Mughals did not take the responsibility of administering villages. Therefore, the .. administration of villages was left in the hands of local village Panchayats.

THE MANSABDARI SYSTEM

During the early years of his reign, Akbar’s army was mostly foreign personnel consisting of Mongols, Turks, Uzbegs, Persians and Afghans who had followed Babur and Humayun as their regular troops or camp-followers. The commanding officers were of the same race as the troops and were granted large assignments of land in lieu of their salaries. In view of the semi-independent position of the commanders, the military aristocracy was inclined to be insubordinate, making the Mughal army a weak instrument of force.

The officers resorted to irregularities and fraudulent practices and cheated the government and soldiers alike. Akbar concluded that there was no other way of establishing his authority except by taking the absolute power of direction and control in his own hands and reorganising the army in such a manner as to stamp out corruption and convert it into a powerful disciplined force. The result was the mansabdari system. The word mansab means place or rank and mansabdars were, therefore, holders of ran} the imperial service. The lowest rank was that of ten and the highest that of ten thousand.

Towards the end of his reign, Akbar raised the highest rank to twelve thousand. The mansabs were a convenient method of fixing the status and salaries of the imperial officers. The services were not classified into civil service and military service, and any mansabdar was liable to be called upon to discharge either duty at any time in his career.

All imperial officers, except perhaps the qazis and the sadrs, were enrolled as members of the mansabdari system and were required to maintain some troops proportionate to their ranks. There were no fixed rules of appointment, promotion or dismissal of the mansabdars who held offices at the emperor’s pleasure and were promoted, degraded or dismissed at his will.

The mansabdars were paid high salaries in cash, and sometimes by assignments of land expected to yield the revenue corresponding to the salaries fixed for particular mansab. Mansabdars were allowed to recruit their own troops, who generally belonged to their own race or tribe. The mansabdars were required to purchase their own horses and equipment; sometimes these were supplied by the government. At the time of enlistment and first muster the descriptive rolls of the troops and of horses under a mansabdar were recorded and the horses branded.

Akbar paid a great deal of attention to his military establishment and laid down minute rules and regulations regarding its organisation, equipment and discipline. Care was taken to see that the regulations were faithfully observed and the discipline of the army was not impaired. He unerringly laid his finger on the weak points in his military department and removed its deficiencies without loss of time.

He succeeded in making the system work so efficiently, that he earned the credit of having a lifetime’s unbroken record of victories in the battlefield. The system was, however, inherently weak. Firstly, during the first half of Akbar’s reign mansabdars cheated the government by bringing to muster, men from the streets in military uniform and passing them off as soldiers and maintained inferior horses.

Individual troops under the system were more loyal to their chiefs than to the emperor as the division of the army was mansabdarwise and a mansabdar commanded the same troops throughout his life. Secondly, within a mansabdar’s division there was no classification of troops into regiments. All the troops were immediately under him and every soldier had personal relations with him.

Thirdly, corruption in some form or other was unavoidable in a system that left the duties of recruitment and administration of the army to the mansabdars. Fourthly, the practice of payment through the mansabdars was pernicious and led to abuses. Fifthly, the mansabdari system had no organic centre and lacked the cohesive force which is essential in a national army.

Sixthly, the standard of efficiency varied from unit to unit under various mansabdars and there was no uniformity of weapon, equipment, or discipline. On account of these inherent weaknesses, the Mughal army considerably deteriorated under Akbar’s successors. In spite of so many defects, the mansabdari system was an improvement upon the military organisation of the medieval period. It was designed to tap every source of fighting talent in the country.

Some units were particularly suited to certain special kinds of military duties. For example, certain Rajput mansabdars were diplomatically used against certain other Rajput chiefs with whom they conflicted. The system assured steady loyalty of the mansabdars to the emperor and offered an incentive for individual distinction. Every mansabdar was aware that his promotion or degradation depended upon his loyalty and quality of service.

JAGIR SYSTEM

Jagir was a unit of land, whose revenues were assigned to a mansabdar in lieu of his salary. Under the Mughals, apart from the jagir lands, whose revenues went to pay the salaries of the mansabdars for their services to the state, there were also the khalisa lands, whose revenues were earmarked for the maintenance of the imperial court and the personal expenditure of the emperor. Hence the jagir of the Mughal times was similar to the iqta of the Delhi sultanate.

Like the iqta, the assignment of a jagir to a mansabdar did not confer any hereditary rights to that jagir on the mansabdar. He could enjoy the revenues of the jagir only as long as he held the mansab or official rank and rendered services to the state. In other words, the jagirdars owed their position to the Mughal emperor. The Mughal emperors guarded their privileged position against any hereditary claims to the jagirs by the jagirdars by following the policy of frequent transfer of jagirs.

The jagir system was closely related to the mansab system. We should note here that all jagirdars were mansabdars, but not all mansabdars were jagirdars, because some mansabdars were paid in cash and not through the assignment of jagirs…

Land Revenue Administration

Up to Akbar’s 8th regnal year, Sher Shah’s system continued to be the basis with some modifications to meet the growing need for granting jagirs. A series of experiments were made till Akbar’s 24th regnal year, after which the land revenue administration was stabilised. It can be examined under several heads.

Land ownership

Proprietorship (i.e., hereditary rights only) of peasants on soil was recognised.

Methods of calculation

Central government usually fixed rates annually according to the yield which fluctuated. Akbar, however, wanted a uniform system of assessment through which he could make an accurate estimate of crops so that there would be minimal chances of oppression by officers and less fraud by the cultivators.

ZABTI OR BANDOBAST SYSTEM

Raja Todar Mal, the Diwan found the old jama (assessment) figures unreliable and hence collected correct figures from the qanungos and in the 15th regnal year the new jama came into force. Khalisa land was divided into circles, each yielding revenue of one karor (crore). That is why it is known as the karori experiment.

Each circle was placed under a revenue official called Karori. The aim was to make as extensive a measurement as possible, then use it as a basis for compiling a new general assessment. Instead of a rope, a jarib made of bamboo sticks joined by iron rings, came to be used for measuring land.

Measurement was not possible in all subahs of the empire. That is why in some subahs the old systems continued. Thus, wherever possible measurement was undertaken and sufficient information was acquired. All these measures were part of a new system of revenue calculation, called the zabti system.

DAHSALA SYSTEM

On the basis of the above zabti system, fresh reforms were undertaken by Todar Mal. These reforms were collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala. Under this system land was classified into four categories, viz., polaj – annually cultivated, parauti – left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years), chachar – left fallow for 3 to 4 years, and banjar – uncultivated for 5 years or more.

Todar Mal introduced a uniform unit of measurement, Ilahi gaz, which had 41 digits. Further, a decennial survey of every paragana was conducted to ascertain the category of cultivation and level of prices. The aim was to introduce a permanent jama (dastur ulamal) and remove difficulties and delays associated with yearly sanctions. So in 1580, final dasturs giving cash rates per bigha were prepared for different localities.

Mode of Payment

The payment was made generally in cash, though there were some exceptions. For example, in Kashmir and Orissa, it was in kind.

Machinery for Collection

There was a patwari at the village level. He kept a bahi, i.e., a register containing information about cultivators, their lands and assessed revenue. It was the most important document and served as evidence in settling disputes. There were the qanungos at the paragana level who maintained records. At the sarkar level, amil or amalguzar was assisted by karkuns and khazanadar. All these officials worked under the supervision of the provincial diwan, who was directly under the diwan at the centre.

Dahsala System

MUGHAL COURT CULTURE

Architecture

The main features were
Combination of the Persian elements of grandeur and grace and decoration of Indian or Hindu.
Architecture.
Uniformity in the architectural character and structural principles all over the empire.
Construction of mausoleums in the centre of large park-like enclosures and on high platforms. Construction of a double dome – the outer and the inner one.

Development Of Mughal Culture

Fort-building

The first to undertake construction on a largescale was Akbar, who constructed a series of forts, the most important being the Agra fort, built-in red sandstone. His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad. The reign of Shah Jahan saw the climax of fort-building as seen in the Red Fort at Delhi, which had within it Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas. –

Palace-building

During Akbar’s reign, a palace-cum-fort was built at Fatehpur Sikri. Here many of the buildings were in the style of Gujarat and Bengal. The most magnificent building in it is the mosque (Jami Masjid) and its gateway (Buland Darwaza) which stands 176 feet in height.

Other important buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are

Jodha Bai’s palace (influence of Hindu style), palaces of Mariam and Sultana, Birbal’s house, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas, and Panch Mahal.

Building of Mausoleums

During Akbar’s reign, Humayun,s tomb at Delhi was the first Mughal tomb to be placed in the centre of a large park-like enclosure and it also marked the beginning of the use of white marble by the Mughals. The tomb of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri was also built during Akbar’s reign. Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra near Agra was another good example.

The tomb of Itimad-ud-daula at Agra, built by Nur Jahan for her father, was constructed wholly of white marble with pietra-dura. It marks the beginning of the practice of putting up buildings entirely of marble, and a new method of decoration, viz., pietradura (decoration of walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones).

During Shah Jahan’s reign, large-scale use was made of pietra-dura in his buildings, especially in the magnificent Taj Mahal which was built at the cost of Rs.50 lakhs at that time, supposedly by Ustad Isa.

Building of Masjids

During Babur’s reign four mosques, one each at Sambhal, Panipat (in Kabul Bagh), Agra (old fort) and Ayodhya was built. Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri built during Akbar’s reign is one of the most magnificent buildings. Shah Jahan’s reign saw the climax as seen in Moti Masjid at Agra (built entirely in white marble) and Jama Masjid at Delhi (built-in red sand stone). Their influence in provincial and regional kingdoms is clearly visible. Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

PAINTINGS DURING MUGHALS

Features

The Mughal pictures were small in size and hence are known as miniature paintings.
It was mostly courtly and aristocratic.
A keen appreciation of nature was another characteristic of the Mughal school.
Remarkable excellence was achieved by the Mughal school in portrait painting.
The excellence of the Mughal artists in colour composition,

Development of Mughal Paintings

Humayun

During his stay at the court of the Persian ruler, at Tabriz he met two young painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-al-Samad (or Abdus Samad), to whom he gave hope of future employment in case he regained his kingdom. Later on, the two joined him in Kabul and Abdus Samad gave drawing lessons to little Akbar. Akbar: Though illiterate, Akbar had a great thirst for knowledge and commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts. He called a great number of artists to his court and became the real founder of the Mughal school of painting. Akbar gave employment to many artists.

A hundred and fifty or so are known since the illustrations in the manuscripts produced during Akbar’s reign bear the names of the artists. The chief painters were Mir Sayyid Ali, Abd-al-Samad (already in the service of Humayun) and Baswan, a Hindu. Akbar is supposed to have maintained a studio exclusively for painting. Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-al-Samad drilled the craftsmen in all the technical details of Persian miniatures. Many Indians such as Baswan and Daswant attained great positions as court artists.

In 1580, Akbar received in his court the first group of Jesuit priests who presented him with a copy of the Polyglot Bible illustrated with Flemish engravings. The emperor ordered his painters to copy them. Soon other European paintings were brought to his court and studied with interest. After 1595, Mughal paintings reveal the assimilation of Western techniques.

Akbar’s liberal patronage to the Hindus and Muslims gradually resulted in an excellent blending of the Persian and local styles, which was at its best under Jahangir. Jahangir himself was a connoisseur of art and under his lavish patronage, the painting reached its zenith. The paintings of his reign were far more mature works of art. The eminent painters included Abul Hasan (Nadr-uzZaman) Aga Raza, Mansur (Nadr-ul-Asar), Muhammad Nadir, Bishan Das, Manohar and Govardhan.

During this period, European influence manifested itself more and more. The custom of copying European paintings and engravings continued. Jahangir preferred group portraits as well as court scenes and different episodes of his life. An excellent example is the ‘Emperor Jahangir celebrating the festival of Gulab-Pashi’, a Persian festival.

A new type of painting, born of the emperor’s great love of nature, produced the most delightful pictures of his time, namely the animal and flower paintings. His painters used to accompany him on his outings and often the emperor asked them to paint the lovely blossoms, plants, birds and animals he noticed. They form the illustrations in the emperor’s memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, which record many episodes from his daily life. In the field of portraiture, Jahangir’s reign achieved perfection, depicting the full-length subjects, either in profile or three-quarter view.

Shah Jahan

Though interested mainly in architecture, he continued to patronise painting. The high quality of craftsmanship continued, but the inner vitality started to disappear. Kalyan Das, Anup Chitr and Raj Anup were prominent painters in his court. But a more vigorous patron was Shahjahan’s šon Dara Shikoh who had an album of paintings, mainly bird and vegetal, with strong European influences.

Aurangazeb

He did not patronise any arts and painting lost royal patronage but perhaps during his waning years, he may have consented to have his portraits painted, for there are surviving examples where he is shown either as a bearded old man hunting or holding a copy of the Quran in his hand.

PERSIAN LITERATURE

The Mughals proved to be ardent patrons of Persian literature. Persian was adopted as the court language and its literary output covered a wide range of writings, both literary and historical. The Mughal monarchs recorded their own memoirs e.g., Tuzuk-i-Babari by Babur, Gul Badan Begum’s Humayunnama, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri by Jahangir; Abul Fazl’s monumental work, Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama, and various writings of the nobility comprise precious gems of unaccountable value in the evaluation of the history of the period.

The emperors extended enthusiastic patronage to the historical writers and translation important Sanskrit literature. Akbar, for the first time, regularised a translation department that was entrusted the task of translating select Sanskrit, Arabic and even European treatises into Persian. Translation of different sections of the Mahabharata into Persian by many scholars under the title of Razm Namah, the Ramayana by Badauni, Atharva Veda by Sarhindi, Lilawati (a work on mathematics) by Faizi and Rajatarangini by Shahabadi was important.

Translation of some Greek and Arabic works also into Persian was also undertaken. Of the most outstanding works on historiography, Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama of Abul Fazl and Badauni’s Muntakhab-ul-Twarikh, have important pieces of information on Akbar’s reign. On Jahangir’s reign, Iqbalnama and Tarikh-i-Ferishta stand out as important contemporary writings, while Padshahnama by Abdul Hamid Lahori comprises the chief work of Shahjahan’s reign. Of Aurangazeb’s rule, Khafi Khan’s Muntakhab-ul-Lubab and Ishwar Das’s Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri are documents of priceless historical value.

The Mughal royal patronage was equally extended to the growth of Persian poetry. While Humayun himself was fond of composing verses, unprecedented growth was achieved under Akbar whose chief poets were Faizi, Ghizali and Urfi. Abul Fazl has mentioned fifty-nine poets in Akbar’s court. Zeb-un-Nisa (Aurangazeb’s daughter) proved to be an eminent poetess. The subjects covered by the poets, unfortunately, hovered around mainly eulogizing the monarch’s personality and ability.

The period also witnessed remarkable growth in vernacular literature. Akbar, in his zeal to impart a unity of polity to the diversity of culture, became the zealous patron of Hindu literature which attained fresh glories. Writings in Brij Bhasha and Avadhi, though mainly religious in nature, provide an equally elaborate commentary on the social and political ideals to be attained by any society. Of the Ram cult, Tulsidas’s Ramcharita Manas is its immortal replica.

Of the Krishna cult writers, Surdas and his verses compiled in Sursagar’ emerged as yet another outstanding immortal literary feat of Bhakti cult. Of the poets attached to the Mughal court, namely Birbal who has conferred the title of Kavi Raja’, Sundar Das, Chintamani and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, outshone others. Of Rahim’s many works, Rahim Satsai’ till now is an essential part of the school text.

The Mughal royalty’s passion for learning extended to fine calligraphy too. Abul Fazl has mentioned eight styles of artistic writing and mentioned that eminent calligraphists were employed to execute books of the Imperial library. Their work included fine portraits, artistic borders on each page and extremely elegant binding.

MUSIC DURING MUGHALS

Music comprised an essential feature of the Mughal culture. Babur and Humayun were fond of music and devoted their leisure hours to the musicians. As for Akbar, musicians from far and wide and from all races, were patronised. They were arranged in seven groups, one for each day of the week.

The Emperor himself possessed sufficient technical knowledge, played the Nagarrah (drum) and is said to have composed tunes himself. Mian Tansen, hailing from Gwalior, was appointed his poet laureate and is described as the “foremost singer of his age.” Besides Akbar, his courtiers Faizi, Abdur Rahim, Man Singh and Bhagwandas too were great patrons of music. In music too, the blending of Persian and Hindu ideas led to the development of Hindustani music.

Many Sanskrit works were translated into Persian. Shahjahan proved to be a great patron of fine arts. Himself an author of many Hindi songs, he patronised both vocal and instrumental music. Of his leading court musicians, Jagannath and Janardan Bhatta proved foremost. Aurangazeb, on the other hand, while possessing adequate knowledge of the subject, discouraged its use in the court. However, he did patronise instrumental music, and a famous treatise on music was found written in his reign. He is said to play the veena.